more than GRAMMAR I- 가나다 순

- 가정법

정의
; 가정법의 기본 시제는 “과거'' 이다
If I WERE a bird, I WOULD FLY to you.
If you WERE in my shoes, you COULD UNDERSTAND what life means.
He acts as if he KNEW everything.
She talks as if she HAD BEEN there.
I WISH I HAD wings.
It is time that you WENT to bed.

; 가정법의 시젠 단 두 가지다
<가정법 과거 >-
현재의 사실/ 상황을 반대로 가정한다.
주어+could/might/should/would+동사원형~ , if 주어+과거형 동사 ~ .
If I HAD wings, I COULD FLY to you.
You WOULDN'T SAY like that if you WERE in my shoes.

<가정법 과거 완료> -
이미 이루어진 과거 사실/ 상황을 반대로 가정한다.
주어+could/might/should/would+have p.p._, if 주어+had p.p._ .
If it HAD not RAINED so heavily the other day, I COULD HAVE COME here
earlier.
You SHOULD not HAVE BELIEVED what he said if you HAD HAD self confidence.

; 가정법 '현재와 미래'는 있을 수 없다.
우리가 흔히 가정법 미래라 부르는 것은 실상 단순 부사절에 불과하다.
이 때의 if 는 그저 when 의 의미만을 지닐 뿐이다.

If it RAINS tomorrow, we won't go on a picnic.
I will start off if she COMES as expected .

; 가정법의 기준은 조동사의 과거형이다.
우리는 흔히 가정법이라 하면 if-문장을 떠올리나,
가정법은 사실 조동사의 과거형들 (could/might/should/would )에서 시작한다.
이들이 없으면 가정법의 조건이 성립되지 않는다.
if -없이도 얼마든지 가정법 표현이 가능하니까.
Were it not for the sun, all the animals WOULD die off.
Had it not been for his help, we COULDN'T have survived the disaster.
Should the sun rise in the west, he WOULD not accept the proposal.

; 가정법 내에서 시제의 불일치
If it had not stopped raining, the levee would collapse now.
He would turn 80 this year if he had survived the fierce battle which cost the
nation thousands of casualties.

; I wish = if
if 없이도, 또는 조동사의 과거형 없이도,
가정법 표현을 가능하게 하는 유일한 동사가 있다.
바로 wish 다.
단 “- wish (that) 주어 + 동사 _ ”의 구조를 가질 때 한해서이다.

I WISH ( that ) it HAD RAINED a lot the other day.
He WISHED ( that ) she HAD ATTENDED the ceremony.
The boy wished ( that ) he HAD wings.

" "- wish ( that ) 문장 " 에서 주절과 종속절의 주어가 같으면,
종속절에선 `would ~' 문장을 쓰지 않는다.
이미 wish 안에 소망의 의미를 지닌 would 가 포함되어 있기 때문이다.
I WISH I KNEW her address.( o )
I WISH I WOULD know her address.( x )
She WISHES that she HAD someone to help her.( o )
She WISHES that she WOULD stop working so hard.( x )

; 가정법 과거형의 모든 be 동사는 주어에 관계없이 "were'' 이다.
If my uncle WERE alive, he would attend the party.
If you WERE more diligent, you would be a millionaire.

; 가정법 if-절 내에는 원칙적으로 조동사의 사용이 금지된다.
그 원칙을 무시하고, 그 안에 조동사가 진입한단 의미는 그만큼 그 문장의 예외성을 인정하는 것이다.
1.
if -절 내 ``should/ were to''는 가능성 없는 미래'를 의미한다.
If the sun WERE TO rise in the west, I would stay here.
If she SHOULD marry him, the other girls would go crazy.

2.
if -절 내 `would' 는 주어의 간절한 소망을 의미한다.

If you WOULD go abroad, you'd better consult the expert.

; “If 주어 be + to - .'' 는 '주어의 바램'을 의미한다.
If you ARE TO be a doctor, don't forget to study harder.
If he IS TO stay at the position, tell him not to lose the chance.

; 목적어의 자리 (3형식 동사 뒤)에 위치한 if - 절은 가정법이 아니다.
명사절(목적절)이다.

I'd like to KNOW IF he will come to the party.
I WONDER IF the statement is true.


- 감탄문(exclamation)
; 형태
what a(n) 형용사 명사 (주어 동사) _!
how 형용사 a(n) 명사 (주어 동사) _!;
= 주어 동사 SUCH a(n) 형용사 명사.
= 주어 동사 VERY 형용사

What a magnificent cathedral it was!
(= It was SUCH a magnificent cathedral.)
How diligent the boy was!
(= The boy was VERY diligent.)
How beautiful the weather is!
(= The weather is VERY beautiful.)
What a coincidence!
(= It was SUCH a coincidence.)


감탄사 (interjections)
; 주로 구어체에서 자주 쓰인다.
주로 느낌표(!) 와 함께 쓰인다

"Ah, that feels good." (기쁨)
"Ah, now I understand." (깨달음)
"Ah well, it can't be happened" (안타까움)
"Ah! I've won!" (놀라움)
"Alas, she's dead now." (슬픔)
"Oh dear! Does it hurt?" (연민)
"Dear me! That's a surprise!" (놀라움)
"It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today." (반복)
"What do you think of that, eh?" (질문)
"Eh! Really?" (놀라움)
"Let's go, eh?" (청유)
"Lima is the capital of...er...Peru." (주저함)
"Hello John. How are you today?" (인사)
"Hello! My car's gone!" (놀라움)
"Hey! look at that!" (환기)
"Hey! What a good idea!" (놀라움/기쁨))
"Hi! What's new?" (반가움)
"Hmm. I'm not so sure." (망설임)
"Oh! You're here!" (놀라움)
"Oh! I've got a toothache." (아픔)
"Oh, please say 'yes'!" (간청)
"Ouch! That hurts!" (아픔)

"Uh...I don't know the answer to that." (망설임)
"Shall we go?" "Uh-huh." (동의)
"85 divided by 5 is...um...17." (망설임)
"Well, what did he say?" (별 뜻 없이 문장을 이끌 때)


- 구두점(Punctuation Marks)
종류
apostrophe ( ’ )
; 줄임형
He's (=He is) a teacher.
They're(=They are) politicians.
; 소유격
She lives in Aunt Mary's.
He is a doctor of Oncology Dept. in St. Paul's hospital.

brackets ([ ])
; 설명적인 단어나 구를 인용구 안에 포함시킬 때
He said, "I ain't〔sic〕going."
; 인용된 문장을 변형, 주 문장안에 맞춰넣을 때
Espinoza charged her former employer with "falsification of [her] coaching
record."
; 괄호 안에서 또 다른 괄호의 역할을 하고자 할 때
Chernwell was poet laureate of Bermuda (a largely honorary position [unpaid]) for
ten years.

parentheses (( ))
; 단어, 숫자, 구, 또는 절이 예문이나 설명을 제공하지만,
문장의 의미를 변형시키진 않는다
Three jurors(now out of the jury) will be replaced.
He followed the fortunes of his brothers( mercenary soldiers ) in a distant
country.
Delivery will be made in thirty (30) days.
; 줄임형을 쓸 때
The new drug was approved by FDA (Food and Drug Administration).
He is new head of WHO (World Health Organization).
; 기타의 용도
The conference was held in the boardroom. (The results were not revealed.)
Although we liked the food (the French wine was the best), we didn't go there.
Years age, someone (I wish I could remember who!), told me about it.

colon ( : )
; 절 이나 구가 이전 문장을 보충설명한다.
The sentence was poorly organized: it lacked both unity and coherence.
He had only one pleasure: reading.
Three boys abstained: John, Bill, and Joyce.
; 참고문헌, 성경구절, 시간 또는 비율을 표현한다;
Journal of the American Heart Association 10:135
John 4:12
a ratio of 3:7
7:30p.m.
; 책의 제목과 부제목을 나눌 때
Battle of Freedom: The Era of the Civil War

comma ( , )
; 주절과 종속절을 구별할 때
She knew little thing about the job, and she didn't volunteer.
I came, I saw , I conquered.
When I saw him, he was lolling in a sofa.
; 연결사들과 함께
My parents, on the other hand, remained neutral.
The worsening economy, however, made the rich richer.
; 단어, 구, 또는 절이 연결될 때
She was young, eager, and challenging.
Be sure to pack a flashlight, a sweater and an extra pair of socks.
; 앞 단어를 동격 설명할 때
Our guide, who was a Scot, was an experienced traveler.
The book's author, Marie Osborne, was the most popular among teens.
; 간/직접 화법이 함께 할 때
She said, "I'm marrying."
Tom asked, 'What's up, folks?"
; 부가의문문에서
It's a cold day, isn't it?
; comma 의 유무에 따른 의미 변화
Tom said the English teacher is a terrible grumpy old monster.
Tom, said the English teacher, is a terrible grumpy old monster.

dashes ( — )
; 문장이 갑자기 중단 되거나 변할 때
When the stockfile was sold off ―indeed, dumped― the sales were hard hit.
; 괄호나 코마가 올 자리에서 대신 특별한 강조를 할 경우
The presentations-and especially the one by Mr. Jones― impressed the audience.
; 앞에 나온 말을 설명 또는 요약할 때
Oil, steel, and wheat ― these are the sinews of industrialization.
; 절이나 구를 중단할 때
혹시 느낌표나 의문부호는 그대로 유지한다
If we fail―and they say we will― then the whole project should be scraped.
The son in laws demanded that everything―even the real estate―be transferred to
him.
Your question―wasn't it your question, Bill― can't be answered right now.
ellipses ( … )
; 생략을 표현할 때 쓰인다
... life is either a daring adventure or nothing.
I'd like to... that is... if you don't mind....

exclamation mark ( ! )
; 감정이 강조된 문장이나 구에서
Get out of here!
She flew her friends to Hawaii for her birthday party!
What a nice home it is!

period ( . )
; 문장을 마칠 때
I've tried my best, children.
; 약어를 쓸 때
Dr. Philmore recommended this place for me.
The author was F. Scott Fitzerald.

hyphen ( - )
; 접두어나 접미사 사이에서
It's a masterpice of pre-Renaissance.
The doctor prescribed an anti-inflammation drug for the patient.
; 복합명사/형용사에서
The Democrat candidate was President-elect.
She is my sister-in-law.
Animals were traveling in a fast-moving van.
The girl has gray-green eyes.
The new sedan is powered by a six- or eight cylinder engine.
; 분수
They gave him the two-thirds majority of the vote.
; 범위 설정
The topic is contained through pages 50-67.
Korea has been ruled by Japan for the years 1910-1945.
question mark ( ? )
; 의문문에서
How are you?
What does he do for a living?

quotation marks - double(󰡒 󰡓)
; 문장을 인용할 때
She said, "I love him."
; 단어를 차용할 때
He called himself "emperor", but he was a dictator.
; 시, 소설 또는 방송 프로그램명을 표현할 때
He enjoys Jay Leno's "Tonight Show".
The teacher often quotes Robert Frost's "After Apple Picking".
quotation marks -single (󰡐 󰡑 )
; 인용문 안에 또 다른 인용문을 넣을 때
The witness said, " I heard him say,' Don't be late,' and then heard the door shut."

semicolon ( ; )
; 독립된 두 문장을 연결시킬 때
Some like bananas; others do not.
; 두 절이 접속형 부사로 연결될 때
Drunken driving is illegal; furthermore, it is fatal.
; 의미의 확장을 꾀하는 표현들 앞에서
He tried to get a real job; that is, to have his hair cut and get clothes trimmed.
She's trekked around the globe; for example, Africa, the Antarctica, and the
Sahara.
; 코마가 들어있는 구들을 구분지을 때
I have contacted your offices in Baltimore, Maryland; San Francisco, California,
Springfield, Illinois.

slash/virgule ( / )
; ‘or’ 의 역할을 함
Every student must had in his/her report by June 30th.
; 'to'나 ‘and' 의 의미
the fiscal year 1988/1989
in the June/July issue
; 년/월을 나눌 때나 분수에서
The credit card is invalid 11/19/07
ten and 47/100 dollars
; per 의 의미
100 kms/hour


-도치(Inversion)

정의
; 부사(구/절)나 전치사구가 문장의 맨 앞에 놓이게 되면
주어 앞으로 조동사와 be 동사가 일반적으로 온다.

WHERE HAVE you been all day long?
UPON THIS PLAN DEPENDS the future of our company.
NOT UNTIL HE GETS SICK DOES one know how valuable health is.
LITTLE DID I dream that I would pass the test.
NEVER HAVE I seen such a wonderful sight.
I have never been to Paris. NEITHER HAS he.
He is very interested in the job. SO IS she.

; 일반동사가 주어 앞으로 올려면
그 동사가 완전자동사( 1형식 ) 이여야 한다.

HERE COMES a bus.
HERE AND THERE IN THE PARK BLOOMED beautiful flowers.
SIDE BY SIDE LAY the dead and the dying.
THERE ROSE a thick smoke from the volcano.
그러나 대명사 주어는 완전자동사의 도치를 방해한다.
THERE he comes. ( O ) // There comes he. ( x )
HERE I go again. ( o ) // Here go I again. ( x )

; 보어와 목적어의 도치
BLESSED ARE the injured.
HAPPY ARE those who help themselves.
WIDE IS the gate that leads you to misfortune.

NOT A WORD DID she say at the meeting.

; 가정법에서의 도치
WERE he a bird, he could fly to you.
( If he were a bird, he could ~. )
SHOULD it rain tomorrow, we can't attend the concert.
( If it should rain tomorrow, we can't ~. )
HAD it not been for their help, he would have missed the train.


동격(Apposition)
; 두 개의 명사가 나란히 놓여하나가 다른 하나를 꾸며준다.
영어는 따로 조사가 없기 때문이다.

Arizona senator, Barry Goldwater, won the Republican nomination.
I went to the movie with my friend, Alice.
John and Bob, both friends of mine, are starting a band.
Alexander the Great, the Macedonian conqueror of Persia, was one of the most
successful military commanders of the ancient world.
The singer Dean Martin will be performing at the Sands Hotel.


동명사(Gerund)
; 동사를 명사로 표현하기 위함이다.
; 명사이므로 당연히 주어, 보어 그리고 목적어의 역할을 한다
COLLECTING foreign coins is his favorite pastime.( 주어 )
Her problem is SMOKING too much.( 보어 )
Paul Harvey used to enjoy CLIMBING every weekend.( 동사의 목적어 )
Thank you for INVITING us for your fantastic showtime.( 전치사의 목적어 )

; 일부 동사들은 목적어로 동명사만을 좋아한다
; 동명사는 주로 어느 동작의 “관습적 일반성”, 즉 현재형을 표현한다.
admit avoid consider deny enjoy escape excuse finish give up mind
miss permit postpone practice put off quit resist stop
He condiders MOVING to another city.
Don't give up EXERCISING to lose your weight.

<> --------------------------------------------------
또 다른 동사들은 투부정사만을 목적어로 선택한다.
투부정사는 특정 행위의 “ 미래적 의미 ”를 지닌다.
afford care choose decide determine hope intend manage mean plan
pretend promise refuse wish

I don't care TO GET involved in the matter.
He refused TO ACCEPT the offer.
----------------------------------------------------------------

; 동명사의 유형들
1.
표준형 - `동사 + ~ing '
He considers STEPPING down as president.

2.
수동형 - `being + p.p.'
The little boy didn't mind BEING LAUGHED at.

3.
완료형 - `having +p.p.'
기준 동사 보다 한 시제 먼저 일어남을 의미한다.
She regrets HAVING DUMPED him.

4.
완료수동형 - `having been p.p'
He is proud of his son's HAVING BEEN SELECTED as chairman of the
committee three times in a row.

<<잔소리>> ----------------------------------------------------
Q. 동명사, 분사, 투부정사 그리고 조동사의 공통점은?
A. 과거형 표현.
이들은 단어의 순수한 형태로는 과거형 표현이 불가능하므로,
완료형을 통해 기준 시제보다 한 단계 앞섬을 나타내 준다
He regrets HAVING QUIT the business school.
HAVING RESTED quite a while,, he took to the field again.
He seems to HAVE ESCAPED the punishment.
She MUST HAVE BEEN a great beauty in her youth..
-------------------------------------------------------------

; 동명사 주어는 3인칭 단수 취급한다
SEEING the baby born IS something I shall never forget.
CLEANING teeth regularly REQUIRES lots of effort.

; 동명사 중 의미를 조심해야 할 것들 (관용적 표현들) -
1.
There is no (way of) ~ing
= It is impossible to + v ~ ;
There is NO WAY PREDICTING what the future will be.

2.
It[There] is no use ( of ) ~ing
= It is of no use to + v ;
It is NO USE CRYING over spilt milk.

3.
cannot help ~ing
= cannot but + v ;
I COULDN'T HELP LAUGHING at the funny scene.

4.
on ~ing
= as soon as + s + v
She burst int tears ON HEARING the news.

5.
It goes without saying that ~ .
= It is needless to say that ~.
= It is no doubt that ~
It goes without SAYING that health is more important than wealth.

6.
need/ require ~ing
= need to be + pp
This pencil NEEDS SHARPENING.

7.
feel like ~ing
I suddenly FELT LIKE taking a walk.

8.
make a point of ~ing
= make it a rule to + v ;
She makes a point of GETTING up early in the morn.

9.
worth ( of ) ~ing
= worthwhile to + v
Prague is really WORTH VISITING once in your life.

10.
come near ~ing
=almost
A child came NEAR BEING RUN over by a car.

11.
far from ~ing
= never ~
The statement is far FROM BEING true.

12.
What do you say to ~ing?
= Let's ~ , (shall we?)
What do you say to GOING to a movie tonight?

13.
look forward to ~ing
= have a great expectation to + v
Tom looks forward TO RECEIVING many gifts on his birthday.

14.
insist on ~ing
He insisted on HAVING broken into the house alone.

15.
stop ~ing
He stopped SMOKING at the request of a lover.
(=quitted smoking)
cf. He stopped TO ASK a direction of a passerby.
(= stopped and asked)

<> -----------------------------------------------
동명사, 투부정사 그리고 분사에 대한 통합적 고찰 -
1. 배경
; 이 세 품사들은 '동사' 라는 한 어미에서 나온 삼형제이다.
; 영어의 규칙상, 한 문장 내에선 동사를 "두 번 이상" 쓸 수 없다.

I like DRINK a cup of coffee before breakfast.( x )

따라서, 접속사 없이 또 동사를 쓰고 싶다면,
그 의도하는 동사에 변형을 줘야한다;
I like TO drink a cup of coffee after every meal.
I like drinkING a cup of coffee atter every meal.

그러나 분명 각자의 역할이 있다.
동명사가 하는 역할은 (명사)에 제한되어 있고,
분사는 명사의 앞/뒤에서 그 주인을 (형용사적)으로 보필하는 반면,
투부정사는 명사/ 형용사/ 부사의 광범위한 역할을 한다

Drinking and smoking IS a great hazard to your health.
( 주어 < 명사 )
His hobby may be COLLECTING pictures.
( 보어 < 명사 )
I seriously consider MOVING to New York.
( 목적어 < 명사 )
Listen to a bird ( which is ) SINGING from a distance.
( 분사 - 서술적 )
A ROLLING stone gathers no moss.
( 분사 - 한정적 )
TO KNOW is one thing, to teach another.
( 주어 < 명사 )
Her aim is TO BECOME a Nobel laureate in literature.
( 보어 < 명사 )
I don't want TO BE a member of the family.
( 목적어 < 명사 )
She is the last woman to DESERT her baby.
( 형용사 - 한정적 )
He is TO LEAVE here tomorrow.
( 형용사 - 서술적 )
Tom Hagen was very glad TO BE a lawyer for Michael Coleone.
( 이유 < 부사 - glad 의 원인 제공 )
The poor boy grew TO BE President of the United States.
( 결과 < 부사 - grew 의 결과 제공 )

2.
역할의 차이점;
- 동명사는 일반적으로 과거나 현재의 관습화된 행동,
- 현재분사는 진행형 능동,
- 과거분사는 수동,
- 그리고 투부정사는 미래적인 의미를 담고있다

He enjoys SWIMMING in the pool.
( 평소에 습관적으로 swimming 을 즐김 )
I saw him SWIMMING in the pool.
( saw 의 시제와 swimming 의 동작이 일치함. him 이 swimming 의 주체 임 )
For me, WRITTEN English is more difficult than SPOKEN English.
( 시제와는 큰 관계가 없지만, English 가 written 과 spoken 의 주체가 아님 )
I will try TO PERSUADE her to attend the party.
( try 와 persuade 의 시제에 차이가 남 )

3.
동명사/ 분사/ 투부정사 에서의 의미상 주어 -
영어에선 한 문장에 `주어+동사'의 골격이 한 번 갖춰지면,
접속사를 사용하지 않는 이상, 주어를 더 이상 쓸 수 없다.
이 때 '의미상의 주어'를 활용해야 하는데,
동명사와 분사는 그 앞에 ‘소유격 이나 목적격’을 이용하고,
투부정사는 `for/ of + 목적격 ' 의 틀을 이용한다

He objected to HIS DAUGHTER'S marrying a minister.
Mom didn't like ME ATTENDING the Presbyterian church.
It is very important FOR YOU to plan your future.
It was very kind OF HIM to help the poor lady.
--------------------------------------------------------------------

동사(Verbs)
; 동사는, 영어의 구조를 이해하는 데, 가장 중요하다.
; 영어의 모든 문장은 “주어+동사''의 축을 기준으로 한다.
; 눈이 몸의 구십 이듯이, 동사가 영어에서 차지하는 비중이 그러하다.
; 동사를 알면, 동명사/ 부정사/ 분사를 쉽게 이해할 수 있다.
왜냐면 동사는 그들의 엄마이기 때문이다

; 동사의 5 patterns
1.
S +V
1형식 동사는 완전자동사(intransitive) 이므로,
이론상 그 뒤에 마무 것도 오지 않아도 되나,
혹시 필요하다면 (전치사) 와 (부사) 만 올 수 있다

Birds are flying HIGH in the sky.
He made FOR the door when he heard the steps.

1형식인데,
3형식의 오해를 받는 동사들이 있다;
add to agree with allude to apologize to/ for
belong to
complain about
depart from depend on/upon dream about/ of
experiment with
graduate from
insist on
look at/ for
object to
participate in persisit in
refer to rely on/upon reply to
succeed in/ to sympathize with
think about/ of
wait for/ on


2.
S+V+C
2형식 동사 뒤에 오는 보어론 (형용사)와 (명사) 뿐이다.
주어는 보어와 일치한다

Greenhouse effect has become WORSE for a decade.
We will make A GOOD COUPLE.
His hobby is TO PLAY TENNIS WITH FRIENDS.
The bottom line is THAT HE TAKES CARE OF THE FAMILY.

3.
S+V+O
3형식부턴 타동사(transitive) 를 사용한다
목적어로 명사만 온다.
목적어는 꼭 주어와 다른 것이어야 한다

The school turned out MANY GOOD SCHOLARS.
A little boy made A SOFTWARE PROGRAM.
I don't care IF THEY WILL COME.
She enjoys CHATTING with on-line pals.

항상 3형식으로만 쓰여야 되는데,
1형식으로 오해받는 동사들이 있다:
approach attend await comprise discuss enter explain inhabit investigate
lack marry mention phone reach report remember
We had hardly APPROACHED to the station before thetrain left.( x )
We had hardly APPROACHED the station before the train left.( o )
Would you MARRY with me?( x )
Would you MARRY me?( o )

항상 3형식인데,
4형식으로 오해받는 동사들
announce confess describe explain introduce propose suggest

Can you EXPLAIN me the rules?( x )
Can you EXPLAIN the rules to me?( o )
He SUGGESTED us that we help pass the bill.( x )
He SUGGESTED ( to us ) that we help pass the bill.( o )

4.
S+V+I.O.+D.O.
4형식은 주고/받음을 표현하는 일종의 전달동사( 수여동사 ) 이다.
그 동사 뒤엔 `간접목적어 + 직접목적어' 가 따르는데,
`간목'은 전달되어지는 대상, `직목'은 주어지는 물건이다.

A famous tailor made HIM A NEW SUIT.
He bought HIS NEPHEW A TOY SOLDIER.
간목과 직목의 위치는 바뀔 수 있는데,
그 땐, 뒤로 위치된 간목의 앞에 적절한 전치사를 배정한다
전치사구는 문장형식에서 배제되므로 그 동사는 3형식이 된다;
He gave the book TO ME.
Mother bought a new dress FOR TWYNE.
He asked me OF THE MATTER.

4형식으로 쓰일 수 있는 동사들 ;
ask book bring buy charge cost fetch get give grant hand leave lend
make offer owe
pass pay promise read refuse save sell send show take teach tell
throw write

5.
S+V+O+O.C.
5형식 동사의 뒤엔 `목적어 + 목적 보어'의 어순이 와야한다.
목적보어는 목적어를 보충 설명한다.
목적어 자리엔 명사만 올 수 있다.
목적보어의 자리엔 명사와 형용사가 올 수 있다.
목적보어는 목적어와 일치하는 것이라야 한다

They elected HER PRESIDENT OF THE CLUB.
A doctor told HER TO STOP SMOKING.
He makes IT A RULE to get up early in the morn.
I would appreciate IT IF you could send me the name of the agent.

; 주의해야할 동사들
1.
재귀대명사(-self) 를 목적어로 취할 수 있는 재귀형 동사들 (reflexive verbs)
absent adapt ask avail
behave blame busy
compose concern content cut
deceive dress
enjoy excel exert express
familiarize fool free
hurt
injure introduce
kill
look after
please present pride
wash

2.
「동사 + 목적어 + 전치사 ~ing」의 형태를 띄는 동사들
accuse A of B
blame A for B
congratulate A on B
deter A from B discourage A from B dissuade A from B
excuse A for B
forgive A for B
keep A from B
prevent A from B provide A with B
rob A Of B
stop A from B suspect A of B
trick A into B

3.
보통 문장에선 3형식 이지만,
" that -절 " 을 뒤로 할 땐 4형식이 되는 동사들
ask advise assure convince inform notify persuade reassure
remind tell ;
The doctor REASSURED ME that the problem was not serious.
The doctor REMIMDS me of my late brother.

4.
`that +s +v'를 목적절로 바로 받지 못하는 동사들-
accept ignore recognize reject substantiate support
이 동사들 뒤엔 반드시 "the +추상명사+ that+s+v ~ "' 를 가져야 한다
추상명사들로는 주로 -
the belief the danger the idea the fact the possibility the suspicion
I can't accept THE FACT THAT Manchester United was beaten in
the championship League.
The idea that students should volunteer for the homeless stirred a hot debate.

5.
"that+s+(SHOULD)+동사원형 ~." 을 유도하는 주절의 동사들
advise command demand insisit maintain order persist propose
require suggest;
He PROPOSED that the chairman ( should ) BE present at the
conference.
The doctor advised that the patient stop smoking.

6.
진행형으로 쓰이지 않는 동사들(stative) :
agree, appear,
be, believe, belong to,
(can't) bear, care, come from, concern, consider, consist in/ of, contain,
cost
depend on, deserve, dislike, doubt
envy, equal, exist, expect
fear, feel, fit, forget, forgive
guess
hate, have, hear, hold( contain ), hope
imagine, include, intend, interest
keep on, know,
look( appear ), lack, like, love
matter, mean, measure
not mind, need, notice
owe, own
please, possess, prefer
realize, recognize, refuse, regret, remember, resemble
see, seem, smell, sound, suit, suppose, suspect
taste, think
understand,
want, weigh. wish, wonder
-------------------------------------------------------------

-사역동사
; 영어문장의 기본 원칙상
목적어 다음에 동사를 쓰고 싶다면 기본적으로 `to' 가 필요하다
I told him TO STOP smoking.
그러나, 사역동사는 그 원칙을 벗어난다.
목적어 다음의 동사로 원형 과 과거분사 형태 만이 올 수 있다.
She MADE him WASH her car.
I HAD my hat BLOWN off.

; 사역동사의 역할을 할 수 있는 동사들은 딱 세가지,
“ have, make, let '” 이 있다.
help 도 준사역 동사로 분류, 가끔식 사역동사 역할을 하기도 한다
He MADE me MOW the lawn.
Don't LET the sun SHINE on me.
I HAD my bicycle REPAIRED yesterday.
The rain HELPED us ( to ) harvest the crops in time.

; 그러나 수동형 문장에선 사역동사의 의미가 없어진다.
그 문장에선 `be' 동사가 주인 동사이기 때문이다.
그래서 다른 동사를 또 사용하려면, 그 의도된 동사에 변형이 필요하다

I WAS made TO follow the rules.
The salesperson was not let to enter the bilding.

-지각동사
; 주어가 오감으로 느끼는 동사들
see, watch, feel, hear, overhear, listen to, notice, observe
이들이 주절의 동사인 경우,
목적어 다음의 동사들로는 원형/ ~ing ( 이상 능동 ),
그리고 과거 분사( 수동 )를 기본으로 한다
I HEARD someone SAY that the driver was drunk.
We WATCHED her STEALING an item at the stationary shop.
He LISTENED TO the song PLAYED by the band.

; 그러나 수동태 문장에선
그 지각 동사들이 그 위력을 발휘하지 못한다.
이 땐 이미 그 문장의 `be' 가 주체 동사 이기 때문이다;
He WAS overheard SAYING that he intended to resign.
The thief was seen to sneek into the bank.


-이어동사 (Phrasal Verbs)
; 동사가 부사나 전치사와 함께 쓰여
그 원래의 의미가 확장된다.
agree with + 사람 : 동의하다, 적합하다 (= be of the same mind, suit)
agree to + 사물 : -에 동의하다 (= consent to)
apply for : 지원하다 (= ask to be given)
apply to : 적용되다 (= concern, fit)
apply oneself to : -에 전념하다 (= give all one's energy to)
attend on : 시중들다 (= wait on, serve)
attend to : -에 주의하다 (= pay attention to, be attentive to)
break into : 침입하다, 방해하다
break out : 갑자기 발생하다 (occur suddenly)
break down: 고장나다, 망가뜨리다
bring about : 발생시키다, 야기하다 (= cause to happen)
bring up : 기르다, 양육하다, 교육하다
blow up: 날려 버리다
burst into : 갑자기 시작하다 (= begin suddenly)
call a person (bad) names : 욕하다
call for : 요구하다 (= demand, require)
call off : 취소하다 (= cancel)
call up : 전화하다 (= telephone, ring up)
care for : ① (의문문, 부정문에서) 좋아하다 ② 돌보다 (= look after. take care of)
carry on : 계속하다
carry out : 수행하다
catch up with : 따라잡다 (= come up with, overtake)
cf) come up with : 제안하다 / put up with : 참다, 견디다 (= endure, tolerate)
check in : (호텔 등에) 투숙하다 (호텔, 공항 등에) 체크인하다
↔ check out : (호텔 등에서) 계산을 마치고 나오다 come across : (우연히) 만나다, 발견하다 (= run across, meet by chance)
come by : 획득하다, 방문하다 (= obtain, visit)
come in[into] touch with : -과 접촉하다
come to : ~하게 되다, ~가 되다 : ~에 달하다, ~에 이르다
come true : 실현되다
come up with : ① ~을 따라 잡다 ② 제안하다, 안출하다
consist of∼ :∼로 구성되다, 이루어지다 (= be made up of∼, be composed of∼)
consist in : ~에 있다 (= lie in, exist in)
count for little : 가치가 없다 (= be of little importance)
count in : 셈에 넣다 (= include)
count on : -을 믿다 (= rely on)
deal with : 다루다 (= treat)
depend on : 믿다, 의지하다 (= rely (up)on = count on = rest on = fall back on = be dependant on)
figure out : ① 이해하다 (= make out, understand), ② 계산하다 (= calculate)
get along : 진척되다, 살아가다 (= make progress, manage)
get away : 도망치다, 떠나다 (= escape, leave)
get better : 좋아지다 (= become better)
get worse : 악화하다 (= become worse)
get in touch with- : -와 접촉하다
get on : 타다
get off : 내리다
get over : 회복하다, 극복하다 (= recover from, overcome)
get rid of : 제거하다, 없애다 (= eliminate)
get through : 끝마치다 (= finish), 겪다, 연락하다, 통과하다
get tired of : 싫증나다 (= become weary of)
get to : 도착하다 (= reach, arrive at)
get used to : ~에 익숙해지다 (= get accustomed to)
give birth to : 낳다, 생산하다 (= bear, produce)
give in : 제출하다, 굴복하다, 무너지다 (= hand in, surrender, collapse)
give oneself to : 몰두하다 (= devote oneself to)
give up : 포기하다, 굴복하다
give a ring : 전화하다 (= telephone)
go ahead : 계속하다, 전진하다, 먼저 가다 (= continue, advance, go first)
go for a walk : 산보하다 (= take a walk)
go on : 계속하다 (= continue)
go through : (고통을) 겪다, 경험하다, 통과하다 (= suffer or experience, pass through)
go without : ∼없이 지내다 (= do without = dispense with = manage without)
hand down : 물려주다, 유산으로 남기다
hand out : 나누어 주다, 분배하다 (= give out =distribute)
hand over: 넘겨주다, 양도하다
hold good : 유효하다
hold on : 기다리다, 붙잡다, 계속하다 (+ wait, grasp, continue)
keep an eye on : ~을 감시하다, ~에 유의하다
keep ... from ~ing : ...가 ~하는 것을 못하게 하다 (= prevent - from ~ing, stop - from ~ing)
keep in touch with : ~와 계속 접촉하다
keep ~ing : 계속해서 ~하다
keep in mind : 명심하다, 기억하다 (= remember, bear in mind)
keep one's word : 약속을 지키다 (= keep one's promise)
keep up with : -에 뒤떨어지지 않다 (= keep abreast with or of)
long for + N.: 갈망하다
long to부정사 : ~하기를 열망하다
look after : 돌보다 (= take care of, care for)
look down on (or upon) : 멸시하다 (= despise, ↔ look up to)
look for : 찾다 (= search for, be in search of)
look forward to : 고대하다 (= anticipate)
look out : 조심하다 (= be careful)
look (up)on A as B : A를 B로 간주하다 (= regard A as B = think of A as B = consider A as B)
look up to : 존경하다, 우러러보다 (↔ look down on)
make (or pull) a face : 얼굴을 찡그리다
make a fool of : 조롱하다
make believe : ~인체하다 (= pretend)
make both ends meet : 수지균형을 맞추다 (= live within one's income)
make fun of : 비웃다, 조롱하다
make much of : 중요시하다
make nothing of : 아무렇지도 않게 여기다
make one's way : 앞으로 나아가다, 성공하다 (= proceed, succeed)
make oneself at home : 편히 하다 (= feel comfortable)
make out : 이해하다, 성공하다 (= understand, succeed)
make sense : 이치에 닿다, 말이 되다 (= be sensible, be reasonable)
make sure : 확인하다, 확실히 하다
make the best of : 잘 이용하다 (= make the most of = use well)
make up: 화장하다, 구성하다, 화해하다, 체결하다, (비율을)차지하다 (= account for)
manage to ∼ : 간신히 [가까스로, 그럭저럭] ∼하다
pass away : 죽다, 사라지다
pass down : 전하다, 물려주다 (= hand down, pass on)
pick out : 고르다 (= choose, select)
pick up : 집다 (= lift up from a surface), 얻다, 회복하다, 태워주다 (pick ∼ up)
put down : 적어두다, 기록하다 = write down ; 진압[통제]하다
put forward : 주창하다, 내세우다
put off : 연기하다 (= postpone)
put on : 입다 (= wear, ↔ take off)
put on weight : 체중을 늘리다, 체중이 늘다 (= gain weight) ↔ lose weight : 체중이 줄다
put out : (불을) 끄다 (= extinguish)
put through : 성취하다, (전화를) 연결하다 (= carry out, connect)
put together : 결합시키다, 조립하다 (= assemble, ↔ take apart)
put up:올리다. 게시하다. 천막을 치다
put up with : 참다 (= endure, bear, tolerate, stand)
read between the lines : 행간의 뜻을 읽다, 함축된 의미를 읽다
refer to : 언급하다, 문의[조회]하다, 참조하다
rely on : -에 의존하다, 믿다 (= depend on, rest on, count on)
result from- : -에 기인하다, -의 결과로서 생기다
result in- : 결국 -이 되다
run away : 달아나다 (= flee)
run dry : 마르다
run into : 충돌하다
run across : 우연히 만나다
run out of : (물품이) 바닥이 나다
run over : (차가 사람을) 치다, 다시 검토하다, 빨리 훑어보다
set out : 시작하다, 떠나다 (= set off, begin, leave)
settle down : 정착하다, (흥분 등이) 가라앉다
settle in : 이사하다, 자리잡고 살다
set up : 세우다, 설립하다, 설치하다 (= establish)
show off : 자랑하다
show up : 나타나다 (= appear, turn up)
set up : 설치하다, 세우다, 짜맞추다, 제안하다 (= come up with)
set out : 출발하다, 항해하다, 착수하다
sit up : (자지 않고) 늦게까지 앉아 있다 (= not go to bed)
stand by : 지지하다, -를 편들다 (= support)
stand for : 나타내다, 상징하다; 지지하다, 참다 (= represent, support, tolerate)
stand out : 눈에 띄다, 두드러지다 (= be prominent)
stick to : 들러붙다, 고수하다 (= adhere to)
succeed in : 성공하다
succeed to : 계승하다, 상속하다
suffer from : ~로 고통 받다, ~로 고생하다 (= be troubled by)
take a chance, take chances : 모험을 걸다, 운에 맡기다
take advantage of : 이용하다 (= utilize)
take A for granted : A를 당연한 것으로 여기다
take after : -을 닮다 (= resemble)
take away : 버리다
take a look at : 보다 = look at = have[get, give, cast, shoot] a look at
take a picture of : ~을 사진찍다
take care of : 돌보다 (= look after, care for)
take in : ① 받아들이다 (= admit) ② 포함하다 (= include) ③ 구독하다 (= subscribe) ④ 속이다 (= deceive)
take into account : -을 고려하다 (= take into consideration)
take measures : 조치를 취하다, 방책을 강구하다 (= take action, take steps)
take off : ① 벗다 (↔ put on) ② 이륙하다 (↔ land)
take one's time : 서두르지 않다 (= not to hurry)
take over : -을 인수하다
take out:꺼내다
take part in : 참가하다 (= participate in)
take place : 일어나다, 발생하다 (= happen)
take the place of : -을 대신하다
take turns : 번갈아 하다
try on : 입어보다, 시험해 보다
turn down : 거절하다 (= reject)
turn off : 끄다
turn on : 켜다
turn out : ~로 판명되다, 입증하다 (= prove)
wait for : 기다리다 (= await)
wait on : 시중들다 (= serve)
wear out : 닳아 버리다, 지쳐 버리다
yield to : 굴복하다 (= give way to)

<> -------------------------------------------
부사의 의미까지 이미 포함한 동사들 -
사실, 뒤의 부사들은 의미 중복이므로 사용해선 안된다
boost up
continue on cut down cope up
list down/out lower down
proceed on
raise up recall back repeat again reply back return back
slim down
They returned back home yesterday.(x)
Please raise your hands up whn you have a question.(x)
------------------------------------------------------------

-접촉형 동사
; 형태
접촉동사+목적어(접촉대상)+전치사+the +접촉부위
The ball hit a boy on the head.
Teacher patted him on the shoulder.
She held him by the hand.

-불규칙 동사 (irregular verbs)
; A
bet bet bet/ broadcast broadcast boadcast/ burst burst burst
cast cast cast/ cost cost cost
hit hit hit/ hurt hurt hurt
let let let
put put put
quit quit quit
read read read/ rid rid rid
set set set/ shed shed shed/ shut shut shut/ spread spread spread
thrust thrust thrust
upset upset upset
wet wet wet

; B
bend bent bent/ bind bound bound/ bleed bled bled/ breed bred bred/ bring brought brought/ build built built/ burn burnt burnt/ buy bought bought
catch caught caught/ cling clung clung/ creep crept crept
deal dealt dealt/ dig dug dug/ dream dreamt dreamt/ dwell dwelt dwelt
feed fed fed/ feel felt felt/ fight fought fought/ find found found/ flee fled fled
fling flung flung
get got got/ grind ground ground
hang hung hung/ have had had/ hear heard heard/ hold held held
keep kept kept/ kneel knelt knelt
lay laid laid/ lead led led/ lean leant leant/ leave left left/leap leapt leapt
learn learnt learnt/ leave left left/ lend lent lent/ light lit lit/ lose lost lost
make made made/ mean meant meant/ meet met met/ mislead misled misled misunderstand misunderstood misunderstood
pay paid paid
say said said/ seek sought sought/ sell sold sold/ send sent sent/ shine shone shone/ shoot shot shot/ sit sat sat/ sleep slept slept/ slide slid slid/ sling slung slung/ slink slunk slunk/ smell smelt smelt/ speed sped sped/ spell spelt spelt spend spent spent/ spill spilt spilt/ spin spun spun/ spit spat spat/ spoil spoilt spoilt stand stood stood/ stick stuck stuck/ sting stung stung/ strike struck struck/ sweep swept swept
teach taught taught/ tell told told/ think thought thought
understand understood understood
weep wept wept/ win won won/ wind wound wound/ wring wrung wrung

; C
arise arose arisen/ awake awoke awaken
be was/were been/ bear bore borne/ beat beat beaten/ become became become begin began begun/ bite bit bitten/ blow blew blown/ break broke broken
choose chose chosen/ come came come
do did done/ draw drew drawn/ drink drank drunk/ drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen/ fly flew flown/ forbid forbade forbidden/ foresee foresaw foreseen forget forgot forgotten/ forgive forgave forgiven
give gave given/ go went gone/ grow grew grown
hide hid hidden
know knew known
lie lay lain
mistake mistook mistaken/ mow mowed mown
prove proved proven
ride rode ridden /rise rose risen/ run ran run
saw sawed sawn/ see saw seen/ sew sewed sewn/ shake shook shaken/ shear sheared shorn/ show showed shown/ shrink shrank shrunk/ sing sang sung/ sink sank sunk/ sow sowed sown/ speak spoke spoken/ spring sprang sprung/ steal stole stolen/ stink stank stunk/ stride strode stridden/ swear swore sworn/ swell swelled swollen/ swim swam swum
take took taken/ tear tore torn/ throw threw thrown/ tread trod trodden
undertake undertook undertaken
wake woke woken/ wear wore worn/ weave wove woven/ withdraw withdrew withdrawn/ write wrote written

동음이의어(Homonym)
; 소리는 같으나 의미가 다른 단어
; ‘homonym‘ 참조


대명사(Pronouns)

정의
; 문자 그대로 명사 대신 쓰인다.
; 영어가 제일 싫어하는 한 명사의 '반복적' 쓰임을 방지하기 위해 생겨났다

Jack likes to go to school.
HE has many friends there.
Tom and Jane have been dating for many years.
THEY are to marry soon.
Each student must have HIS or HER own book for the semester.
The kids are very wild and noisy.
The old man hates to stay with THEM.

; 인칭별 대명사
주격
- 소유격 소유대명사 목적격 재귀대명사
1인칭
단수 I my mine me myself
복수 We our ours us ourselves

2인칭
단수 You your yours you yourself
복수 You your yours you yourselves
3인칭
단수 He his his him himself
She her hers her herself
It its its it itself
복수 They their theirs them themselves

1.
주격은 주어이므로 동사 앞에
HE likes to watch videos when he is free.
2.
목적격은 목적어 이므로 3형식 동사 뒤에;
We love HIM.

3.
소유격은 " 명사 앞에 " 놓이며 말 그대로 그 명사를 소유한다;
고유명사나 일반명사는 보통 " +‘s " 의 형태를 가진다.
대명사는 각 고유한 소유격을 갖고있다;
Tom is to marry JANE'S older sister.
The professor's lecture drew lots of boos from the students..
She envied her on HER diamond stud dress.
`소유격 + own + 명사' 에서 own은 강조형 부사이다;
Do concern yourself over your OWN matter.

4.
소유대명사는 ` 소유격+ 명사 ' 의 패턴인데,
한 문장 내 앞에서 이미 언급된 명사의 반복적 사용을 피하기 위함이다;
His point if view on the matter is different from MINE.
He has an opinion against the policy. Same is HERS.

이중소유격( double genitive )
; 소유격은 a/an, any, some, no, this/ that 과 같은 지시어들과 함께 쓰이지 않는다
I like this book of HIS.( o )
I like HIS this books. ( x )
Bring me another pencil of YOURS.( o )
Bring me your another pencil.( x )
I came across a friend of MY FATHER'S.( o )
I came across MY FATHER'S friend.( x )

재귀대명사
; 재귀용은 목적어로 쓰여 생략이 불가능하다
; 3형식 동사 뒤에 목적어로 오는 경우
He couldn't make HIMSELF understood in English.
She behaved HERSELF at the first presentation.

; 전치사 뒤에 오되, 생략이 않되는 경우
The comedians laughed at THEMSELVES on the stage.
Maria was beside HERSELF when she heard the news.

; 강조용으로 쓰이는 재귀대명사는 생략이 가능하다

The kid (HIMSELF) has done the job.
The handicapped have climbed the hign mountain (BY THEMSELVES ).
The door opened (OF ITSELF ).
Let the work be done (FOR YOURSELF ).
Politics is unpredictable (IN ITSELF ).

; 재귀대명사는 목적격으로만 쓰인다, 주어로 쓰일 수 없다.
Jim and MYSELF have completed the project.( x )
I can make myself understood in English.

지시대명사
this/ these
; 기준자의 가까이 있는 사람/사물을 지칭한다.
THIS is the man I talked about the other day.
; 형용사로 쓰이는 경우도 있다
I don't have any idea about THIS information.
; 복수형은 these 이다
THESE books are mine.
; 앞 문장 전체를 받기도 한다
He's been betting on horse racings. THIS has cost him his entire property.

that/ those :
; 기준자의 멀리 있는 사람/사물을 지칭한다.
; 복수형은 those 이다.
형용사로 쓰이기도 한다;
THAT's the building he wants to buy out in a bid.
Heaven helps THOSE who help themselves.
All junk food, especially THOSE sold at the canteen should be avoided.
THOSE boys and girls are about to enter the main hall.

; 앞 문장 전체를 받기도 한다.
To be or not to be; THAT's the question.

; 앞의 `the + 명사' 를 대신한다
The population of Korea is smaller than THAT of Japan
( = the population ).
The ears of a rabbit are longer than THOSE of a fox.
( = the ears )

; this 는 후자( = the second/ the latter/ the other )
that 은 전자( = the first/ the former/ the one )를 의미한다.
Virtue and vice are before you; THIS leads you to misery, THAT to happiness.

such
; 대명사로 쓰이는 경우
SUCH was my statement, which probably upset the teachers.
He is only a prodigy and should be treated as SUCH.

; 형용사로 쓰이는 경우
We can't easily find SUCH politicians as Washington and Lincon.
; 부사로 쓰이는 경우
You are lucky to have SUCH a kind husband.
The alleged offences include crimes SUCH as theft and shoplifting.
The severity of the earthquake was SUCH that tremors were felt over 50 miles
away.

one
; 셀 수 있는 단수 명사 대신 쓰인다
He had a hign end parker. A similar ONE was found under the table.

; 명사의 반복적 사용과 무의미한 중복을 싫어하는 영어의 속성에서 비롯된다.
앞에 나온 명사 바로 그 것을 의미하지는 않고,
그 것과 같은 종류의 유사한 것을 지칭한다.
You can borrow my dictionary if you don't have ONE.
His new camera is very expensive ( ONE ).

; one 이 앞/뒤에서 수식받을 때에는 그 앞에 지정어가 필요하다
I prefer THE ORANGE ONE.
Give me THAT ONE over there.
Have you got A SMALLER ONE ?

; 일반적인 주어를 의미한다
ONE should respect one's ( HIS/ HER ) parents.
ONE does not appreciate the importance of health until HE/ SHE is ill.
In such circumstances, ONE is forced to defend oneself.

one/ it
; 앞에 나온 명사를 대신 할 때, one 은 그 명사와 유사한 것이고,
it 은 바로 그 것(= the same one )을 의미한다

I lost a pencil yesterday. Mom promised to buy a better ONE for me.
He bought a new TV set. IT was larger than the previous ONE.

* one of the 복수명사:
Keeping fish is just ONE of my hobbies.
ONE of the cars was badly damaged.

기타 문장 속의 대명사들 -
1.
one, the other(s)
He has two sons; ONE is a doctor, THE OTHER is a teacher.
There are some fruits in a basket; ONE is an apple, THE OTHERS are pears.

2.
one thing, another :
To learn is ONE THING, to teach is ANOTHER.

3.
one, another :
I don't like this red ONE. Show me ANOTHER.

4.
each other/ one another ;
The two guys looked at EACH OTHER in surprise.(둘 사이)
People in the community are determined to help ONE ANOTHER.(세명 이상)
one after another ;
They made for the exit ONE AFTER ANOTHER without hurrying.

5.
one, another, the third - 세 개를 설명할 때
one, another, a third - 많은 것을 열거할 때
He has three sons. ONE is a doctor, ANOTHER a teacher, THE THIRD a pilot.
ONE is red, ANOTHER white, A THIRD green.( a fourth ..... )

6.
some ~, others ;
SOME (people) like wrestling, OTHERS do not.

7.
some-/ any-
some 은 보통 긍정, any 는 부정/의문/조건 문에서 쓰인다;
Have you told ANYONE about the letter?
I would never borrow money from ANYBODY.
Tell me if you see ANYTHING unusual.
She thinks that SOMEONE has been watching her.
He is afraid that SOMETHING has gone wrong.
그러나 `제안/요구' 문장에선
some 이나 some- 단어를 사용할 수 있다;
Would you like SOME milk?

부정적인 의미를 지닌 단어들과 함께하는 문장 내에서도
any- 패턴을 쓴다
아래 <잔소리> 참조;
He denied telling ANYONE about what he had seen.
I fell too full to eat ANYTHING.

--------------------------------------------------------
‘숨어있는' 부정의 의미를 지닌 단어들:
barely, by no means, deny, fail, forbid, forget, hardly, impossible, improbable,
incapable, inhibit on no account, no sooner, prohibit, rarely, reluctant, scarcely,
seldom, too ~ to..., unable, under no circumstances, unless, unlikely, unnecessary,
unwilling, without
-----------------------------------------------------------

8.
none
강조하고자 하는 의미에 따라 단/복수가 혼용된다;
NONE HAVE succeeded in the enterprise.
He looked for jam only to find that there WAS NONE left.
NONE of the food WAS fit for the consumption.
NONE of the shops ARE open today.

9.
neither/ neither A nor B
주어로 쓰일 경우 단수 취급한다;
대명사로 쓰이는 경우
NEITHER of the programms WAS suitable for children.
NEITHER of the books WAS interesting at all.
부사로 쓰이는 경우
NEITHER I NOR he WASN'T there.
She was NEITHER beatuful NOR intelligent. < 부사 >

10.
either/ either A or B
주어로 쓰일 경우 단수 취급한다;
대명사로 쓰이는 경우
EITHER of the parents IS able to fill the form.
EITHER of the books IS worth reading.
부사로 쓰이는 경우
EITHER he OR she DOESn't agree with them.
I didn't go there, EITHER.

11.
both
BOTH of the suitcases WERE stolen on the spot.
BOTH of them need a long holiday.


목적어(Objects)
정의
; 3형식 동사 뒤에 오는 명사/ 대명사를 말한다
; 주어와는 다른 대상 이어야 한다
I love YOU.
We discussed THE MATTER.

; 목적어 자리엔 순수 명사 외에도
동명사, 부정사, 그리고 명사절이 올 수 있다
He enjoys SWIMMING in summer.
I like TO TALK it over with you.
He said THAT HE WOULD ATTEND the ceremony.

; 전치사 뒤에서는 반드시 명사류를 써야하는데,
이를 편의상 “전치사의 목적어” 라 부른다
He is determined to take care OF THE FAMILY.
The boy never believes IN RESURRECTION.
He went abroad with a view of STUDYING economics.

; 전치사 뒤에 `주어+동사`의 구조를 만들고 싶다면,
일반적으로 그 절 앞에 what 을 써 명사절 화 시킨다
The young populace didn't pay attention to WHAT the candidates
argued about.
I have no idea of WHAT'S GOING on here.

간접 목적어
; 4형식 동사 다음에 바로 붙는다
수여되는 대상/ 사람을 일컫는다
They gave HER an enormous cake for the party.
He brought HIS PARENTS strange souvenirs.

직접 목적어
; 간접목적어 다음에 오는 명사
수여되는 대상/ 물건
He taught me ENGLISH when I was a highschool junior.
A gentleman gave a lady A BIG SLOPPY KISS.
I'd like to buy her A DIAMOND STUDDED NECKLACE.

<> ------------------------------------------
- 간목과 직목의 위치가 바뀌는 경우엔,
“~ 직목 + 전치사 + 간목
He gave the book TO me.
Uncle bought a nery expensive gift FOR me.
Teacher asked me OF my family.
He taught math for me.
She cast a big grin at the boy.
The teacher asked a personal question of the student.
----------------------------------------------------

가목적어
; 뜻 또는 의미를 가지고 있지 않다.
; 목적어의 자리를 구조적으로 지킬 뿐이다.
;가목적어의 역할을 할 수 있는 품사로는
명사의 역할을 할 수 있는 투부정사/ 동명사/ 명사절 이다.
그 뒤로 이어지는 어순은 “ 목적보어 + 진목적어 '' 이다.

I think IT necessary to follow his advice.
He makes IT a rule to go to bed early.
They took IT for granted that she was competitive enough to be promoted.

Some people find IT difficult to stop smoking.
They made IT impossible for Jones to leave the company.

진목적어
; 가목적어+목적보어 다음에 오는 동명사/ 투부정사/ 절
I thought it inevitable to follow the local guide.
He considered it really hard leaving New York.”
She thought it necessay that she would follow him to New York.


명사(Nouns)

구조
; 모든 동사 앞에서 주어
Tom Brokaw is a late night anchorman for NBC.
He is handsome and intelligent.
To jog 10 miles every morning seems like his religion.
Dancing to the music aroused his inspiration.
What he said was beyond my imagination.

; 2형식 동사 뒤에서 주격 보어
They are police officers.
Our job is to protect the public from natural disasters.
The point is that he's a chronic absentee from the annual meetings.

;3형식 동사 뒤에서 목적어
I love the book.
He really enjoys skiing.
They hoped to have attended the party.
They used to think that the sun goes around the earth.

그리고 목적어 뒤에서 목적 보어의 역할을 한다;
You can call me Jack.
He makes it a rule to walk 15 miles a day.

셀 수 없는 명사들 (uncountables)
명사는 기본적으로 대부분 셀 수 있지만,
셀 수 없는 명사들을 주의해야한다.

1.
물질명사
물질: wood, cotton, glass, plastic, rubber, cardboard,
액체와 기체: water, milk, oil, air, oxygen, hydrogen, sulfur dioxide, gas
음식: bread, cheese, rice, meat, beef
Plastic is valuable for its versatility
Gas is lighter than air.
Rice is an important staple for most Asian peoples.

2.
추상명사
생각: knowledge, health, time, energy, money noise, traffic travel, education
활동: reading, drawing, swimming, shopping
스포츠와 게임: tennis, football, chess
언어: English, French, Korean, Japanese, Chinese
There was always a lot of noise in the classroom.
There is always heavy traffic around the spots complex.
Reading is an essential mind activity for growing kids.
Is tennis alive these days?
He can speak French, let alone English.

3.
집합명사
audience board class committee company crowd family gang
government jury majority minority population staff team
; 집합명사는 보통 단/복수 혼용이 가능하다
a. 한 단체로 여겨져 단수 취급하는 경우엔 단수
The team HAS been banned from playing in Europe.
b. 개별 구성원을 의식할 경우엔 복수
The team WERE all running towards the referee.
; “the"의 유무화 상관없이 항상 복수형으로만 쓰이는 집합명사:
cattle people poultry sheep vermin ;
CATTLE ARE raised on the field.

; “the” 와 함께 항상 복수형으로만 쓰이는 집합명사
동일한 유니폼을 입는 멤버의 집단:
aristocracy clergy gentry nobility peasantry police ;
THE CLERGY WERE against the stem cell resarch.
THE POLICE ARE busy on patrol.

주의해야할 명사들
1.
복수형으로 보이는 명사들:
arm/ arms( 무기 ) arrears( 연체금 )
belongings( 재산 ) binoculars braces( suspenders ) briefs( underpants )
clothes congratulations contents
costs( 재판에서 진 사람이 지불하는 비용 )
credentials( qualification ) customs
damages( 재판에서 이긴 사람에게 지불될 보상금 )
directions ( instructions ) dregs( waste )
earnings essentials expenses( 작업 비용)
glasses goods greens( vegetables ) grounds( garden )
headquarters( 본부 )
jeans
knickers( 여성용 내의 )
lodgings( 숙소 ) looks( 외모 )
manners morals( 품행 )
odds( 역경 ) outskirts( 시외곽지역 ) overalls( 작업복 )
pains( effort ) panties pants particulars( details )
pincers( = pliers )
premises( buildings ) proceeds( 수입 ) prospects( 유망한 사람 )
provisions( food supplies ) pyjamas
qualifications qualms( 양심의 가책 ) quarters( lodgings )
refreshments( 가벼운 음식물 ) regards( 안부 ) remains( 유물 )
scales scissors shears shortcomings( 약점 ) shorts slacks
spectacles sunglasses
supplies( 공급물 ) surroundings( 주변환경 )
trousers trunks tweezers
underpants valuables whereabouts( 행적 )

2.
불규칙 복수 명사들 I:
aircraft( aircraft ) children( child ) deer( deer ) men( man ) fish( fish )
feet( foot) geese( goose ) grouse( grouse ) mackerel( mackerel mice( mouse )
offspring( offspring ) oxen( ox ) pence/ pennies( penny ) salmon( salmon )
sheep( sheep ) teeth( tooth ) trout( trout ) women( woman )

2-1.
불규칙 복수 명사들 II:
analyses( analysis ) bases( basis ) crises( crisis ) criteria( criterium )
curricula( curriculum ) diagnoses( diagnosis ) hypotheses( hypothesis )
larvae( larva ) media( medium ) neuroses( neurosis ) oases( oasis ) parentheses( parenthesis ) phenomena( phenomenon ) stimuli( stimulus )
strata( stratum ) theses( thesis ) vertebrae( vertebra )

3.
동사의 단/복수를 결정하지 못하는 명사들:
part percentage rest remainder majority minority 분수(fraction);
TWO THIRDS of the participants WERE pleased with result.
The REMAINDER of the book IS about the author's personal life.

단위명사 (unit nouns)
; 뒤로 'of-구'가 따른다
three kilos of clothes
two litres of milk
five ounces of butter
a pocketful of changes
a handful of people
two spoonfuls of sugar

A handful of people were loitering around the shop.
He put two spoonfuls of sugar in the black coffee.


보어(Compliments)

주격보어
; 2형식 동사 다음에 오는 명사/ 대명사/ 동명사/투부정사/ 절 그리고 형용사;
She is a science teacher.
My job is taking care of the elderly.
His hobby is to play chess with his son.
The point is that he cheated during the test.

; 주어와 주격 보어는 일치한다;
He is quite A GENTLEMAN.
She was very KIND to the poor.
The picnic with Tom was really FANTASTIC.

목적보어
; 목적어 다음에 오는 명사/ 형용사
We selected him CHAIRMAN of the lottery club.
The principal considered the genius RUDE.
He thought it IMPOLITE to disobey the requesr of a senior's.


병렬구조(Parallelism)
형태
; 똑같은 품사의 단어들이 두 개 이상 연속적으로
등위 접속사들 (and, but, or)에 의해 규칙적인 배열을 한다.

A year has SPRING, SUMMER, FALL, and WINTER. <명사>
They ATE, TALKED, and LAUGHED over the trifles. <동사>
She is not BEAUTIFUL but INTELLIGENT. <형용사>
He argued THAT they were devils and THAT they should be done
away with. <절>


부가의문문(Tag Questions)
형태
; 한 문장이 끝나가는 맨 뒤에 쉼표가 오고,
그 뒤로 “조동사/ be동사/ do 동사 + 대명사 + ?'' 의 패턴을 따른다.

You can come here on time, CAN'T YOU?
Tom Hanks is really down to earth, ISN'T HE?
He goes to school on foot, DOESN'T HE?

방식
; 일반동사들은 "do" 로 통일하고,
주어와 시제를 고려해 ‘does’ 나 ‘did' 로 변형한다.
They obey the laws, DON'T THEY?
He believes in reincarnation, DOESN'T HE?
She rushed to the station, DIDN'T SHE?

; 조동사나 be동사는 부의에서도 그대로 쓰인다
You can speak English, CAN'T YOU?
He is tired, ISN'T HE?

; 주어진 문장이 긍정 이면, 부가의문문은 부정,
부정이면, 긍정 이다.
She looks married to a millionaire, DOESN'T she?
You don't like hot summer, DO you?

; 주어진 문장의 주어가 ‘’보통명사‘’이면, 부의에선 대명사 로 바뀐다.
Tom goes to school at 8, doesn't HE?
A dog is faithful, isn't it?

; 주어진 문장의 주어 대명사는 부의에서도 그대로 쓰인다.
She won't marry the playboy, will SHE?
He played with his teammates, didn't HE?

; 부의에서의 부정은 단축형 ( n't ) 으로 쓴다.
You went to the party, DIDN'T you?
She is pretty, ISN'T she?

; 주어진 문장이 ‘’명령문‘’이면, 일반적인 규칙들이 무시되고,
부의는 ‘’무조건‘’ `` ~ will you ?`` 이다.
Clean your room right now, WILL YOU?
Study harder this time, WILL YOU?

; 주어진 문장이 ‘’권유문‘’이면 일반적인 규칙들이 무시되고,
부의는 ‘’무조건‘’ ``~ shall we ? `` 이다;
Let's go to the movie tonight, SHALL WE?
Let's play outside as it is sunny now, shall we?


부대상황 with

; with 다음 명사의 동작이 본 동사와 동시에 이루어지고 있슴
; 형태
with 명사+~ ing
He took a walk with a dog following beside him.
He slept with glasses (being) on his nose.


부정문(Negatives)
; be 동사 또는 조동사 뒤에 일반적으로 not 을 붙인다
He IS NOT ( = ISN'T ) a policeman.
They CAN NOT ( = CAN'T ) swim.

; be 또는 조동사들이 없을 경우엔
기본형으로 “do + not ” 을 이용한다
I DO NOT ( = DON'T ) like to be there.
He DOES NOT ( = DOESN'T ) smoke.
Why DIDN'T she present herself at the party?

; 투부정사 분사 동명사의 부정은 앞에서 이루어진다
We tiptoed NOT to wake the sleeping dog.
NOT ( being ) aware that he was there, she began to speak ill of him.
His NOT having participated in the rally infuriated those involved.

; “~ that - 절 “의 부정은 대개 그 앞의 ” 주절 내“ 에서 이루어진다
I think that he is not right. ( x )
☞ I DON'T think he is right.
I suppose that she doesn't know your address. ( x )
☞ I DON'T suppose that she knows your address.
그러나 hope, wish 는 “ that - 절 ” 내에서 부정을 표현한다;
I hope that he DOESN'T recognize the fault.
He wishes that the prince WOULDN'T succeed to the throne.
; “불특정 다수 전체”를 부정하려면,
동사 보단 대명사 주어를 통한 부정을 택한다
Anybody couldn't understand what the speaker said. ( x )
☞ Nobody could understand what the speaker said.


부분부정( partly negative )
; 일반적으로 부정문 하면 대개 전체부정을 의미한다.
I'm NOT a student.
He DOESN'T study at home.

그러나 `not, never ' 류와 함게 쓰여 부분적인 부정을 유도하는,
`모든/ 꼭/ 절대' 류의 단어들이 있다
absolute(ly), all, altogether, both, enough, every, full, necessary,
quite, total, whole;
It is NOT NECESSARY that she will attend the bazzar.
They DIDN'T come ALTOGETHER.
She is NOT TOTALLY satisfied with the result.


< ------------------------------------------
‘숨어있는' 부정의 의미를 지닌 단어들:
barely/ by no means
deny
fail/ forbid/ forget
hardly
impossible/ improbable,
incapable/ inhibit
on no account
no sooner
prohibit
rarely/ reluctant
scarcely/ seldom
too ~ to
unable/ under no circumstances/ unless/ unlikely/ unnecessary/ unwilling
without
-----------------------------------------------------


부사(Adverbs)

; 부사는 (동사), (형용사), (또 다른 부사)를 꾸민다;
He studies HARD.
She is SO cool.
The drama has been made VERY hurriedly.

; 부사의 위치는 비교적 자유롭다
ALMOST everyone was present at the party.
He was ALMOST dead at the accident.
I met him ONLY at school.
I met ONLY him at school.
ONLY I met him at school.
It was YESTERDAY that he left Korea.
It was NOT UNTIL I HEARD THE NEWS that I recognized
his absence.

;그러나, "빈도부사"의 위친 일반적으로 항시 고정적이다.
be/ 조동사의 뒤, 일반동사의 앞;
always almost also barely certainly definitely even frequently
generally hardly just merely nearly never often never ever sometimes scarcely rarely seldom suddenly;

He ALWAYS walks to school.
I had HARDLY walked a mile before it began to pour.
They are SOMETIMES ridiculous.

; 주로 문두에 쓰이는 부사들은 우리가 말 할 내용에 대한 우리의 태도를 미리 나타낸다
sadly unfortunately surprisingly luckily undoubtedly frankly apparently
naturally of course on the whole in short to be precise;

Unfortunately he's not regained his consciousness yet.
To be precise, he was promoted to a chief of staff for the task force.

; 형태는 비슷하나 의미가 다른 부사들
clear/ clearly close/ closely dear/ dearly deep/ deeply direct/ directly
high/ highly fine/ finely first/ firstly flat/ flatly free/ freely hard/ hardly
rough/ roughly just/ justly late/ lately loud/ loudly near/ nearly
thin/ thinly tight/ tightly wide/ widely

The food prices have soared too high for a few months.
The larger than life actor was highly regarded among the female teens.
The teacher worked hard to get sick.
She could hardly catch up with the latest fashion trends.

; 부사인데 접속사처럼 보이는 것들
이들은 위치가 비교적 자유롭고, 병렬구조의 특징을 지닌다

1.
not only A but also B;
She is NOT ONLY beautiful BUT ALSO intelligent.
NOT ONLY he BUT ALSO his wife were nice to the beggar.

2.
not A but B;
She is NOT beautiful BUT intelligent.
He wants NOT a pen BUT a pencil.

3.
both A and B;
She is BOTH beautiful AND intelligent.
I like her BOTH because she is beautiful AND because
she is intelligent.

4.
B as well as A;
She is intelligent AS WELL AS beautiful.
He AS WELL AS I is against the decision.

5.
either A or B;
EITHER you OR she has to attend the party.
The patient seems EITHER dying OR dead.

6.
neither A nor B;
NEITHER I NOR you are able to persuade him to do the job.
She is NEITHER in the room NOR in the lobby.

7.
as well(= , too );
The celebrity will attend the show as well.

8.
no more than(=only, as less as )
no less than(=as much as, as many as )
not more than(= at best/ at most, less than )
not less than( =at least, more than );

I have NO MORE THAN 100 books with me now.
We'll have NO LESS THAN 20 candidates for the job.
(* no 는 more 나 less 만을 부정한다. 부정의 강도가 not 보단 약하다 )

The hurricane killed NOT LESS THAN 10,000 people.
The once great boxer has NOT MORE THAN a few pennies in
his pocket.
(* not 은 전체를 부정한다.)

9.
not so much A as B( = B rather than A );
He is NOT SO MUCH a poet AS a philosopher.

not so much
The old man couln't so much write his own name.

10.
A ~ no more B than C ~ D. ( = A ~ not B. C ~not D, either)
A whale is NO MORE a fish THAN a horse is a reptile.

<뒤의 문장도 부정이 되는 이유는 한 전체 문장 내에 no/not 이 두 번 이상 올 수 없기 때문이다.>


분수(Fraction)

; 분자(numerator)는 기수(cardinal), 분모(denominator)는 서수(ordinal)
; 분자는 언제나 단수,
; 분모는 복수로도 쓰임, 단 분자가 2 이상 이어야 함.
A fourth of the budget has already been spent on the antique furniture.
Two thirds of the majority oppsed the bill.

; 분수는 주어의 구실을 못함
Two-thirds of the employess were against the planned strike.
One third of the plan was carried out, said the chief of the staff.


투부정사 (to-infinitive)
; 투부정사는 동명사, 분사와 한 배(동사)에서 나온 형제다.
; 한 문장 안에 주인 동사가 하나 있는 상황에서,
접속사 없이 또 다른 ( 동사 )를 쓰고 싶다면,
이 삼형제들 중 하나를 이용한다;

1.
투부정사의 의미적 시제는 미래;
I like TO DRINK a cup of coffee.
Don't forget TO POST the mail.
2.
반면, 현재분사의 시제는 진행( 능동 );
Look at the QUARRELING brothers.
The SINGING birds irritates me too much.
3.
동명사의 시제는 과거/현재;
I remembered SHOUTING to the boys.
Don't forget his PRAISING you before the audience.

<> -----------------------------------
투부정사/ 동명사/분사에서의 완료형은
그 문장의 기본 시제 보다 “한 단계 앞섬”을 의미한다.
He hoped to HAVE VISITED his uncle. ( but he didn't.)
The soldiers are reported to HAVE RUN away during the fierce battle.
----------------------------------------------------------


원형부정사 (bare infinitive)
; 목적어 다음 그 목적보어로 동사를 쓰고 싶다면,
대개 투부정사, 원형부정사, 현재분사, & 과거분사 중 하나를 택해야 하는데,

He told me TO STOP smoking.
They won't let her MARRY the snub. - 원형부정사
She didn't see him LAUGHING at her.
He couldn't make himself UNDERSTOOD in English.

; 그 중 특히, 투부정사에서 `to'가 없는 형태를 원형부정사 라 부른다.
I had my hair CUT at the barber's in the corner.
She had him WASH the car.

; 원형부정사를 요구할 수 있는 주격 동사로는 사역동사와 지각동사가 있다;
make, have & let // feel hear listen to taste
They MADE him GET to the place as promised.
Don't LET her REVEAL the fact to the public.
He FELT himself TOUCHED on the shoulder.


분사 (participle)

; 모든 동사는 현재분사나 과거분사로 쓰일 수 있다.
; 3형식 이상의 동사는 두 역할을 다 한다,
; 반면 2형식 이하의 동사는 현재분사로서만 역할한다.
; 현재분사는 진행형( be + ~ing )에서 be가 빠진 형태로,
능동의 의미를 지닌다.

Look at the girl ( who is ) SINGING to the piano.

; 과거분사는 수동태( be+p.p. )에서 be가 빠진 형태로
수동의 의미를 지닌다.
He enjoys reading a book ( which is ) WRITTEN in Latin.

; 분사는 그 용도가 주로 (형용사적)으로 쓰인다

1.
한정적 형용사
He used to read a book by a BURNING candle.
The DISCUSSED topics don't seem to be relevant to the message the candidate
wanted to deliver to the audience.

2.
서술적 형용사
He is going for New york.
The king was once loved by all people.

3. 분사의 형태는 동명사 처럼,
기본형( ~ing/ being + p.p.) 과
완료형( having + p.p./ having been + p.p.)이 있다

HAVING BREAKFASTED in haste, he left for school earlier than usual.
(BEING) SEEN from a distance, people lool like ants.
(HAVING BEEN) DEFEATED in the game, the Falcons didn't even
look discouraged.

분사구문
; 주절과 부사절이 함께 있는 한 문장에서,
종속절의 “주어 + 동사 ” 구문을 제거한다.
부사절의 주어는, 주절의 그것과 같으면, 보통 생략된다.
As it is written in haste, the book has many faults.
= WRITTEN in haste, the book has many faults.

; 부사절의 주어가, 주절의 그것이 다르면,
전자를 생략하지 않아도 된다.
When the actor appeared on the stage, the female teens burst into
tears.
= The ACTOR APPEARING on the stage, the female teens burst into tears.

; 분사구문에선 부사절의 접속사를 제거하는 것이 원칙이다.
그러나, 주어진 의미의 분명한 전달을 위해, 의도적으로,
그 접속사를 남겨놓는 경우도 있다.
WHEN young, he left for New York to be an actor.
= When he was young, ~ .

; 분사구문에서 부정형 부사 `not/ never' 의 위치는 가장 먼저 온다.
NOT knowing that the light was red. the driver crossed the street.
← As he didn't know that the light was red, the driver crossed the street.
NEVER ( being ) popular with the supporters, he decided to leave the club.
← As he was never popular with the supporters,

; being/ having been 은 보통 생략한다
(BEING) strong enough, he could lift the rock to the sidewalk.
(Having been) lazy all his life, he can't feed his family now.


비교급(Comparatives)

1. 원급 비교
; A와 B 단 두 개를 비교하는 일대 일 단수 비교 이다;
She is AS TALL AS he is.
He is not SO INTELLIGENT AS his younger brother.

; as ~ as' 사이에 명사를 집어 넣으려면 형용사 뒤가 좋다.
He has as MANY BOOKS as the shelves can hold.<셀 수 있는 명사>
I didn't drink as MUCH water as he did. <셀 수 없는 명사>

; very 는 형용사/ 부사의 원급만을 강조할 수 있다;
He is VERY STRONG.
She earns VERY MORE than he does.( x )

; a lot/ even/ far/ much 는 형용사/부사의 비교급을 강조한다;
She earns MUCH MORE than he does.
You have to go EVEN FARTHER than the map says.

not so much A as B:
He is NOT SO MUCH a poet AS a novelist.
→ He is a novelist rather than a poet.

2. 비교급 비교
; A와 B 단 두 개를 비교하는 일대 일 단수 비교이다
She is TALLER THAN he is.
The actor is MORE POPULAR THAN any other celebrityacross the nation.

; 2음절 이하의 짧은 형용사나 부사는 그 단어 뒤에 `-er' 을 붙이고,
반면 3음절 이상의 긴 형용사나 부사는 그 앞에 독립적으로 more/ less 를 갖는다.

She is AS KIND AS can be.
They say that the actor is not MORE BEAUTIFUL THAN any other actress.
Nothing is MORE PRESCIOUS THAN health is.

; 비교급 앞엔 보통 the 를 붙이지 않지만,
다음과 같은 세가지 경우엔 the 가 필요하다

1.
the 비교급 + 주어 + 동사..., the 비교급 + 주어 + 동사...
The SOONER it gets done, THE BETTER the result will be.

2.
`of the two -' 와 함께하는 경우
It seems THE HARDER OF THE TWO languages

3.
all the 비교급 for -
I like him ALL THE BETTER FOR his faults.

; 한 사람 또는 사물이 지닌 두 가지 특징을 비교할 땐
more/ less ~ than 의 형태를 취한다
He is MORE KIND THAN generous.
He is kinder than generous.(x)

; than 의 자리에 to 가 오게 하는 형용사/ 동사
inferior superior, junior senior, prefer

She is three years SENIOR TO his lover.
Metal has SUPERIOR quality to wood in flexibility.
He PREFERs climbing TO jogging.

그밖의 비교급들
1.
no better than( = as good as )
not better than( = worse than ) :
He is NO BETTER THAN a beggar.
He is NOT BETTER THAN a beggar.

2.
no more than( = as little/ few as )
no less than( = as much/ many as)
NO MORE THAN 50 students attended the ceremony.
NO LESS THAN 50 friends celebrated his birthday.

3.
not more than( = at best/ at most, less than )
not less than( = at least, more than )
He had NOT MORE THAN 50 cents left.
She has inherited NOT LESS THAN 5 millions from his dad.
She is NO MORE beautiful THAN her sister is.
( = not so beautiful as )
She is NOT MORE beautiful THAN her sister is.
( = less beautiful than )

4.
A... no more B than C....D
(= A is not B. C is not D either.)
A whale is NO MORE a mammal THAN a horse is a fish.

최상급 비교
; 일 대 다수 비교이다.
; 최상급 표현이 가능한 개별 형용사나
부사 어미들( most, best, worst least )앞에 the 가 와야한다
He was THE MOST COURAGEOUS of all the soldiers in the battle.
She is THE BRAVEST of all the sisters.

; 부사인 경우나 뒤에 명사를 바로 수식하지 않는 경우엔 the 가 꼭 올 필요없다
I like the movie MOST.
The lake is ( the ) DEEPEST at this part.

; 주의할 불규칙 최상급들
little - less - least
good/ well - better - best
bad - worse - worst
far - farther - farthest
- further - furthest


삼인칭 단수 현재
; 주어가 3인칭 단수이며, 동사가 현재형인 경우 그 동사의 모형은 일반 현재형과 다르다.
일반 동사의 경우; 그 뒤에 -(e)s 를 붙인다
조동사의 경우; do 는 >>> does 로, have 는 >>> has 로 바꾼다
HE HAS a mice house in the suburbs.
SHE RUNS a big eatery in downtown.
What DOES it mean?
SHE HAS tried in vain to earn the contract with the conglomerate.

; 동명사, 투부정사, 절이 주어로 쓰일 경우 삼인칭 단수 취급
Doctors say that SMOKING IS a primary cause for his lung cancer.
TO COLLECT STAMPS IS his favorite hobby.
WHAT MATTERS IS if he will accept the proposal.


소유격(Possessives/ Genetive)
; ‘대명사’ 섹션 참조

; 말 그대로 소유한다는 의미이며,
대명사 나 일반 명사의 소유격은 대개 그 뒤에 `'s' 를 붙인다;
Tom'S cabin used to be here.
The teacher's absence stirred a little commotion among the students.

; 소유의 기능이 무의미한 무생물의 경우엔 ` of ' 를 이용한다
The legs OF the table are not strong enough to support the luncheon.
The table's legs are not strong enough to support the luncheon.( x )

이중소유격 (double genetive)
; 소유격은 '관사와 같은 지시어들 (a(n), any, no, some, the, this, that...)' 과 함께
사용하지 못해, “ ~ ‘s ” 형의 표현이 불가능하고,
결국 ` ~ of 소유대명사 ' 형태를 취한다
He is a my friend.( x )
He is A friend of MINE.( o )
His some books are not interesting.( x )
SOME books of HIS are not interesting.( o )

; 소유격 다음엔 반드시 명사가 와야 하나,
그 의미가 분명한 경우엔 명사를 가져 오지 않는다.
He enjoys having lunch at JONE'S ( restaurant ).
Tom will stay at his AUNT'S( house ) during the vacation.

소유격의 강조
1.
소유격 + own :
He has HIS OWN car.

2.
for 소유격 sake = for the sake of
Are you willing to die FOR THE SAKE OF love?

소유대명사
; `소유격 + 명사' 를 한 번에 표현한다
; 명사의 반복적 사용을 피하게 위함이다.
The ball is my book. ( x )
The ball is mine. ( o )
His computer is superior to hercomputer. ( x )
His computer is superior to HERS. ( O ).


수동태(Passives)
; 목적어를 갖는 3형식 이상의 문장들만 수동태 전환이 가능하다
; 동사를 기준으로 주어와 목적어의 위치가 바뀐다;

1.
기본형 - ``be + p.p.'' ;
The actor IS still ADORED by his fans.
← His fans still adore the actor.

2.
진행형 수동태 - ``be + being + p.p.'' ;
Agatha's detective novels ARE BEING EMULATED by a wide range of aspiring
writers..
← A wide range of aspiring writers are emulating Agatha's detective novels.

3.
완료형 수동태 - ``have(has/ had) + been + p.p.'' ;
They HAVE BEEN DEFEATED by their arch rivals three times in row.
← Their arch rivals have defeated them three times in a row.

4.
완료진행형 수동태 - ``have( has/ had) + been + being + p.p.'' ;
A lot of news articles HAVE BEEN BEING PRESENTED to the networks by the
syndicate of writers.
← The syndicate of writers have been presenting a lot of news articles to the
network.

--------------------------------------------
" 지각동사/ 사역동사 " 는 수동태에선 그 의미가 사라진다.
따라서 또 다른 동사를 사용할려면.
그 새 동사에 꼭 ( to - ) 나 ( -ing ) 를 붙인다
The robber WAS SEEN ENTERING the studio.
←(They) saw the robber enter the studio.
The students WERE MADE TO volunteer for the parade.
← (He) made the students volunteer for the parade.
----------------------------------------------------------

; ‘by'와 함께하지 않는 수동태들;
absorbed in bewildered at covered with delighted with embarrassed at
filled with frightened at horrified at interested in irritated at
pleased with perplexed at puzzled at surprised at taken aback


시제(Tense)

영어의 시제는 다음 7가지가 있다

대과거 - ( 과거완료 ) - 과거 - ( 현재완료 ) - 현재 - ( 미래완료 ) - 미래

; 과거, 현재 그리고 미래 는 시점이 고정되어 있다
They SAW the movie last night.
He WALKS to school.
I WILL do it someday.

; 대과거는 과거 이전의 사실만을 의미하는 상징적 시제이다
No sooner HAD she HEARD the news than she burst into tears.

; 완료형은 두 시제를 포함한다 -
1.
과거완료 = 대과거 + 과거
He HAD hardly DRIVEN a mile before he got a flat tire.

2.
현재완료 = 과거 +현재
He HAS LIVED in Seoul since he was born.
HAVE you ever been to LA?
The workmen HAVE just now PAINTED the fence
She HAS WAITED here for three hours to meet her son..

3.
미래완료 = 현재 + 미래
They WILL HAVE DEPARTED by the time you arrive.
The Penguins WILL HAVE CLINCHED the Lombardy trophy three times in a row
if they should beat the senators

; 현재형은 불변의 진리, 관습적 행동 또는 현재적 습관 을 표현할 때 쓰인다
He said that the earth MOVES around the sun.
We were taught that two times two MAKES four.
She GOES to school on foot.

; 과거의 역사적 사실은 항상 과거이다
주절의 동사 (says) 도 종속절의 과거 동사엔 영향을 끼치지 못한다
He says that Korean War BROKE out in 1950.
Colombus DISCOVERED America in 1492.

; 부사의 시제가 동사의 시제를 우선하는데,
완료형 사용을 불가능하게 하는 부사들이 있다
ago at three oclock just on Monday when yesterday last

He has come three hours AGO.( x )
WHEN have you started the store?( x )


시제의 일치 (agreement)
; 시제의 일치는 주로 주절과 종속절에서 이루어진다.
I wonder if he would come on time.( x )
I wonder if he WILL come on time.( o )
He thought that she loves him.( x )
He thought that she LOVED him.( o )
The kids HAD already DONE their works when the teacher RETURNED.

시제의 불일치
1.
~ wish (that) 주어 + 과거 or 과거완료 ;
I wish I HAD wings.
He wish she HAD ATTENTED the party.

2.
It's (high) time (that) 주어 + 과거 or 과거완료 ;
It's time that you WENT to bed.
It was high time that he HAD HEEDED her advice.

3.
~ that 주어 + (should) + 동사의 원형;
이 문장을 요구하는 주절 내의 동사들/ 형용사들/ 명사 :
advise(d) command(ed) demand(ed) insist(ed) maintain(ed)
order(ed)propos(ed) request(ed) suggested urged
important inevitable necessary a pity

They SUGGESTESD that we SUBMIT the plan.
It was MAINTAINED that he BE PROMOTED to the position.
It was NECESSARY that he EXERCISE more frequently.
It is a great pity that he GIVE up his candidacy for the mayoral seat.
< 주의 - 위 문장들에선 원형동사의 시제가 주절의 시제 보다 미래적 의미여야 한다;
cf. He insisted that she HAD WITNESSED the accident.
( - 이미 일어난 일에 대한 주장은 should 를 필요로 하지 않는다.)

; 부사절에서의 미래형은 현재형으로 대신한다
Don't leave here until he COMES back.
If it RAINS tomorrow, we won't ho on a picnic.


수의 일치
; 주어가 3인칭 단수’ 일 경우 그 동사의 현재형엔 ( -e(s) )가 붙는다
He STUDIES english very hard.
The fact that the starlet will join the concert FASCINATES the audience.
It is she who IS to blame for the accident.

; `every/ each' 가 주어를 이끌면 그 동사는 ( 단수 ) 취급된다
EVERY student IS to take part in the parade.
EACH chapter HAS ITS own title.

; `Either A or B' 의 구가 주어인 경우 그 동사는 B를 기준으로 삼는다
EITHER you OR BETTY IS sure to win the lottery.

; `Neither A nor B' 의 구가 주어인 경우 그 동사는 B를 기준으로 삼는다
NEITHER Tom Nor SUSIE HAS not been kind to them.

; `Not only A but also B' 의 구가 주어인 경우 그 동사는 B 를 기준으로 삼는다
NOT ONLY Jessica BUT ALSO Brad IS going to attend the party.

; A as well as B' 의 구가 주어인 경우 그 동사는 A 를 기준으로 한다
The Brads AS WELL AS Jessica ARE going to attend the rally.

; `Both A and B' 의 구가 주어인 경우 그 동사는 A + B 를 기준으로 삼는다
BOTH he AND she DWELL in the suburbs.

; `A of B' 의 구가 주어인 경우 그 동사는 대개 A 를 기준으로 삼는다
The news of the games WAS absolutely disappointing for them.

`A of B' 의 구가 주어인 경우 예외적으로 B 가 주어가 될는 경우
the majority/ the minority/ the part/ percentage/ the rest/ most of
THREE FOURTHS of the earth IS covered with water.
The REST of the students ARE not allowed to get out of the stadium.
MOST of the books WERE about politics.

; `all, some, any' 는 그 뒤에 셀 수 있는/없는 명사를 모두 받을 수 있다
단 셀 수 있는 명사는 반드시 복수 형태로만

ALL the FLOWERES in the shop HAVE withered away.
There ISN'T ANY HOPE left of the plan.


시제의 일치 -
'시제' 참조


의문문(WH-questions)
; 의문사가 문장을 이끌고
그 뒤로 <조동사/be 동사+주어~>가 따른다
이를 우리는 보통 ‘직접의문문’ 이라 부른다;
When did you go there?
Where are you going?
How are you today?
"What's up?", Tony asked.
Why are you so upset?
Who's she going to marry?

yes/no question
; 의문사 없이 <조동사/be 동사+ 주어~>의 어순을 따른다;
Was he insane?
Have you ever been to Venice?
Do you really want to marry the dude?


간접 의문문
; 두 개의 문장이 함께할 땐
의문사가 이끄는 문장도 <주어+동사>의 정상 어순을 따른다;
The maid asked, "Sir, would you tell me where the bus stop is?"
I have no picture of what she is talking about at all.
I do wonder how the pauper married the princess.


조동사 (auxiliary verbs)

; 조동사들은 모두 원래 의미가 미래적이다.
will 만 미래로 생각하는 건 잘못된 것이다.
will 은 미래와 함께 주어의 “의지”를 담고 있다.

She WILL accept his proposal.
( = is going to _ . )
The kid CAN solve the algebraic equations.
( = is able to _ . )
You MAY smoke in the designated corner.
( = are permitted to _ . )
SHALL we dance?
( = Let's _ . )

; 조동사의 과거형들 (could/ might/ should/ would)는 주로 가정법을 표방한다

You MIGHT think I'm crazy IF I THOUGHT of marring the snob.
He WOULD take a walk ( if he lived there single in his twenties ).
You MIGHT as well expect the sun to rise in the west as persuade him
to change his mind.
SHOULD he call, please tell him I'm not available.

이 조동사들은 형태는 과거지만,
여전히 미래의 의미다, 그 문장의 메인 동사에 기준해서.
He insisted that they ( SHOULD ) cut the deal with the kidnappers.
<과거>

; 한 문장의 메인 동사 원형 앞에서 주로 “시제, 부정형, 또는 의문형”을 관리한다
He CAN'T get the job done.
CAN he get the job done?
MAY I smoke here?
You MAY NOT smoke here.
This door WILL not open.
WILL he come along?

각 조동사를 알아본다:
may/ might
; 허락, 허가: ↔ must not
May I smoke here?
Yes, you may. (허가)
No, you may not. (불허가)
No, you must not. (금지)

You may go into the garden; but you must not pluck the flowers.
You may call him a good scholar, but you cannot call him a good teacher.
He may be called a poet, but he cannot be called a scholar.

; 추측, 추정; ↔ may not
What he says may be true, or may not be true.
He may be rich.
= It is possible that he is rich. (현재의 추측 : may + 원형)
He may have been rich.
= It is possible that he was rich. (과거의 추측 : may have + p.p)
He may meet her. (= It is possible that he meets her.)
(현재의 추측)
He may have met her. (= It is possible that he met her.)
(과거의 추측)
He may have said so.
(추정: 진짜 그렇게 말했을지도 모른다.)
He might have said so.
(가정: 어떤 조건 아래서라면 그렇게 말했을 수도 있다.)
He might have met her.
= He might have met her, if he had not been busy. (가정법 과거완료)
= He did not meet her, as he was busy. (직설법 과거)

; 능력 (may = can)
Gather roses while you may. (시기를 놓치지 마라) (may = can)
A man may be known by his friends.

; 기원문: 기원, 소원을 나타내는 경우
May you succeed!
May the Emperor live long! (황제 만세!)
May be rest in peace! (편히 잠드소서!)

; may well + VR : ～하는 것은 당연하다.
She may well be proud of her son.
He may well say so. (～하는 것은 당연하다)

; may (might) as well A as B : 차라리 A하는게 낫다 B 하느니.󰡕
You may as well not know a thing at all as know it imperfectly.
You might as well reason with the wolf as try to persuade him.
You might as well expect the sun to rise in the west as expect me to change
my opinion.

; may as well = had better 󰡔∼하는게 좋다.󰡕
You may as well begin at once.
= might as well
= had better

Can/ Could
; 능력, 가능
I can speak English.
.
; 추측, 강한 의혹.
① 의혹 (도대체 ∼일까?)
Who can he be?
Can it be true?
Where can it be?
② 부정적 추정
cannot be : ∼일리가 없다
cannot +have + pp : ∼이었을 리가 없다.

It cannot be true.
He cannot be honest. (현재의 추측, 그는 정직할 리가 없다)
= It is impossible that he is honest.
It cannot have been true. (사실이었을 리가 없다.)
He cannot have been honest. (과거의 추측)
= It is impossible that he was honest.
Can he have written this English composition?
- No, he can't have written it.

; 허가 또는 가벼운 명령 (=may)
You can go home now. (허가)
Can I help you?

; 공손한 표현
Could you show me the way to the station? (공손)

; 관용적 표현 : cannot ∼ too⋯ 󰡔아무리 ∼해도 지나치지 않다.󰡕
We cannot be too careful of our health.
We cannot praise him too much.
We cannot be too careful in the choice of our friends.
We can scarcely pay too high a price of liberty.
It can never be too late to learn anything.

Must, have to, had to
; 필요, 의무
You must go there.
It is necessary that you should go there.
= It is necessary for you to go there.


must의 부정은 need not/ do not need to/ do not have to/ have not to
의문문: Do you have to go there?
과거형: You had to go there.
미래형: You will have to go there.

; 추측
부정은 ‘cannot be’
He must be honest.(현재의 추측)
≠ He cannot be honest.
He must have been honest.(과거의 추측)
= It is impossible that he was honest.
≠ He cannot have been honest.

Have to, had to의 용법
① have to = must
don't have to = need not

must는 추측(∼임에 틀림이 없다)에도 쓰이지만,
,have to는 필요, 의무에만 쓰이고 추측에는 못쓴다;
You don't have to go there at once.

② have to, had to의 부정문과 의문문
㉠ 부정문
don't have to = have not to
didn't have to = had not to

㉡ 의문문
Do you have to∼?
Have you to∼?
Did you have to∼?
Had you to∼?
③ must의 과거형 : had to
must의 미래형 : will(shall) have to

Will, Would, Shall
; 의지
① 주어의 의지를 나타내는 will
I will do as I like.
She says she will leave here.
The door will not open.
② 상황과 조건을 중시하는 shall
You shall have higher wages, if you work hard.
= I will give you higher wages, if you work hard.
My son shall bring the money to you.
= I will let my son bring the money to you.
You shall die = I will kill you.

; 습관
would : 과거의 불규칙적 습관. (～하곤했다)
He would often come home drunk, and beat his wife.
; 습성, 경향
Accident will happen.
Dogs will bark when they see a stranger.

Would/Should
; 주어의 의지
He would not take the money.
;과거의 불규칙 습관
He would often go swimming in the river while he was in the country.
;wish to
He who would catch fish must not mind getting wet.

Should
; 의무/당연
The young should respect the old.
You should obey the laws.

;과거의 비난, 유감, 후회 (should + have + p.p. : ～했어야했는데)
You should have worked harder.

이성적 판단의 should.
;󰡔It is + 형 + that～󰡕 구문에서 형용사 necessary, important, proper, natural, good,
well, right, wrong, rational 등이 오면 that절에 should를 사용한다;
It is natural that he should get angry.
It is necessary that you should answer the question.
It is right that you should say so.

감정적 판단의 should.
It is 다음에 a pity, surprising, odd, strange, curious, wonderful, regrettable 등이 쓰이면 that～에 should를 사용
It is strange that she should cry all day long.
It is a pity that he should have died young.
It is surprising that he should study the subject.

; 주장, 명령, 희망, 요구, 기대, 제안
advice, advisable, insist, demand, desire, expect, require, request, propose, move,suggest, order, wish) + that + S + (should) + VR
He insisted that he (should) go to the party.
I ordered that he (should) do it himself.

; lest ∼ should 용법 : 󰡔∼하지 않도록󰡕
자체 속에 부정의 뜻을 포함하고 있으므로, should다음에 not을 쓰지 않도록 주의.
⋆lest ∼should = for fear of ∼ing = so that may not
Write it down in your notebook lest you should forget it.
He lowered his voice for fear that he should be heard.

Ought to
should와 거의 같은 뜻으로 사용된다.
; 당연/의무
You ought to start at once.
You ought not to say such things.
Our experience ought to be a stimulus for our success in the future.
He ought to speak English well, for he has lived in England for many years.

; 과거의 유감, 후회, 비난
ought to have + pp = should have + pp)
You ought to have told me that matter yesterday.
He ought to have arrived at Seoul Station by now.

; 의문문
Ought he to join us?
- Yes, he ought (to).

Dare
; dare는 부정문과 의문문에서만 조동사로 쓰여 “감히 ～하다”
I dare not go there.
= I don't dare to go there.
How dare you say such a thing to my face?
=How do you dare to say such a thing to my face?

; dare to do : 본동사
He does not dare to tell us.
I dare say = probably = perhaps = maybe

Need
; need는 부정문과 의문문에서만 조동사로 쓰인다.
He needs your help. (본동사, 그는 너의 도움을 필요로 한다)
He need not go there. (조동사)
= He does not need to go there. (본동사)
Need he work so hare? (조동사)
= Does he need to work so hard? (본동사)
; need not have + p.p : ～할 필요가 없었는데 ～를 했다.
He need not have written to her again.

Used to
used to + 동사원형.
; 과거의 규칙적 습관
I used to get up early.
There used to be a big tree there.
He used to live in Pusan.

; 의문문과 부정문
Used he to call on you every Sunday?
Did he use to call on you every Sunday?

He used not to live here.
He did not use to live here.

--------------------------
*be used to + 명사, 동명사. 󰡔∼에 익숙하다.󰡕
He is used to driving a car.
I'm not used to the city noise yet.
----------------------------------------------------


전치사 (preposition)
; 문장의 한 형식 (1 ~ 5형식) 이 마무리 된 상태에서, 그 뒤로 어떤 명사를 추가적으로 사용하고 싶다면, 그 의도된 명사 앞에 전치사가 필요케 된다.

; 대표 전치사들
aboard above about across after against along amid among around as at before behind below beneath beside between beyond but by concerning despite down during except for from in into inside into like minus near of off on onto opposite outside over past per plus regarding round save since than through to toward under underneath unlike until up upon versus via with within without

; 그 전치사 뒤의 명사를 전치사의 목적어라 부른다
The wrecked ship floated away AT the mercy of tides.
She sat BETWEEN them.
The sun set BEHIND the horizon.
The puzzling rhetoric went BEYOND the whole audience.
A bird sang IN the woods.
They don't talk ABOUT poitics.
ABOVE all, the end justified the means.
He arrived AT the airport ON time.

; 전치사 다음에 동사를 쓰고 싶다면 동몀사를 이용한다
He looks forward TO MEETING the girl with whom he has corresponded
WITHOUT SEEING each other for a whole year.
The lawmaker objected TO SENDING more troops to the war zone.
She takes pleasure IN HELPING the poor.

*다양한 전치사구들 (phrasal preposition);
at the rate ;~의 비율로
at the price ;~의 가격에
at the speed ; 의 속도로
at the pace ; 의 속도로
at the expense of ; ~의 댓가를 치르고
at the beginning/end of ; 의 처음/ 끝ㅇ
at one’s convenience : ~가 편리한 때에
at all times : 항상
at the latest : 가장 최근에
at most : 기껏해야
at least : 최소한
beyond description : 표현이 힘든
beyond one’s control : 어떻게 할 수 없는
in a row : 연속으로
in detail : 상세히
in conclusion : 결론적으로
in advance : 미리
in general : 일반적으로
on very short notice : 급하게 알려줘서
on purpose : 고의로
on the whole : 전체적으로
to the surprise of N : N가 많이 놀랍게도
upon (on) request : 요청시
under construction : 공사중인
under consideration : 고려중
without a doubt : 의심할 여지 없이
3with ease : 쉽게
cf. at ease : 마음 편히 / 편하게 / 자연스럽게
in advance of (= ahead of/before/prior to) : ~보다 미리
in honor of Dr. Klein : ~을 기념하여
in accordance with : ~과 일치하여 / ~을 따라
in addition to : ~뿐 만 아니라
in observance of : ~을 준수하여
in comparison with : ~와 비교하여
in case of : ~의 경우에
in compliance with : ~에 따라서
in conjunction with : ~와 협력해서/관련해서
in reference to : ~에 관하여
in terms of : ~라는 점에서
in favor of : ~을 찬성하여
in spite of : ~에도 불구하고
in response to : ~에 대한 응답으로
in line with : ~와 일치하여
by means of : ~에 의해서
on account of : ~에 때문에
on behalf of : ~을 대신하여
with (in) regard to : ~에 관해서
with the exception of : ~의 예외로
by means of ~ ; ~의 수단으로
concerned about ~ ; ~를 걱정하는
equipped with ~ ; ~의 장비를 갖춘
aimed at ~ ; ~을 목적으로 하다
made of : ~로 만들어지다(재료)
committed to ~ ; 최선을 다하다
assigned to : ~에게 할당되다.
surprised at : ~에 놀라다
composed of : ~로 구성되다
involved in : ~에 관여되다
engaged in : ~에 종사하다
based on : ~에 근거하다
satisfied with : ~에 만족하다
interested in : ~에 관심을 갖다
covered with : ~로 뒤덮이다
replaced with : ~로 대체되다
crowded with : ~로 붐비다
please with : ~에 기쁘다
associated with : ~과 관련있다
dedicated (devoted) to : ~에 전념/헌신하다
exposed to : ~에 노출되다
related to : ~과 관계있다
entitled to : ~할 자격이 있다
accustomed to : ~하는데 익숙하다
familiar with the issues.
familiar to ~; ~에 익숙한
famous for : ~로 유명하다
subject to : ~의 영향을 받다/~의 대상이 되다
capable of : ~을 할 수 있다
eligible for ; 자격이 되는
consistent : ~에 일관성이 있다/ ~과 일치하다
full of : ~로 가득차다 cf. be filled with
independent of : ~로부터 독립적이다
conscious of / be aware of / be cognizant of : ~을 알다 / 인지하다
different from : ~과 다르다
responsible for : ~에 책임이 있다
suitable (appropriate) for : ~에 적합하다
relevant to : ~과 관계있다
close to : ~에 가깝다
compatible with : ~와 걸맞다
succeeded in ; 성공하다
cf. succeed to N : 계승하다
concentrate on : 집중하다
benefit from: 혜택을 보다
apply for: 신청/지원하다
cf. apply to
care for: 돌보다
account for : ~을 설명하다
agree with/on : ~과 동의하다 / ~에 대해 동의하다
belong to : ~에 속하다
compete with/for : ~와 경쟁하다 / ~에 대해 경쟁하다
consist of : ~로 구성되다 (be composed of)
comply with : ~을 따르다
contribute to : ~에 공헌하다
enroll in : ~에 등록하다
deal with : ~을 다루다
deal in ; 상거래하다
depend on (=rely on) : ~에 의존/의지하다
interfere with (in) : 간섭하다 / 중재하다
look for : 찾다
look at (=stare at) : 보다
look into : 조사하다
object to : ~에 반대하다
respond (reply) to N : ~에 대응/응답하다
stop by/in : ~에 들르다
subscribe to; (신문구독)을 신청하다
talk to 사람 / about 사물 : ~에게 / ~에 대해서 얘기하다
gave in to : ~에 굴복하다/ ~을 들어주다
put up with: 참다
make up for: 보상하다
get along with ; 잘 지내다
put in for (=sign up for) : 신청/요청하다
adapt to : ~에 적응/순응하다
come to an end : 끝이 나다
come to an agreement : 동의에 이르다
come close to N : N에 가까스로 이르다/ 거의 N의 단계에 이르다
go(come) into effect : 효력을 발휘하다
look forward to ~ing : ~를 학수고대하다
have an effect (impact/influence) on N = influence/affect : ~에 영향을 미치다
keep track of N : ~를 추적하다
take N into consideration : ~를 고려하다
take advantage of : ~를 이용하다
run short of N : ~가 부족하다
obtain O. from;
prevent (stop/ keep/ hinder) O. from
provide I.O. with D.O.: A에게 B를 공급하다
provide D.O. for I.O. : A를 B에게 공급하다
acquaint A with B : A를 B에 대해서 알게하다 (A에게 B를 이해시키다)
follow A to B : A를 따라 B로 가다
associate A with B : A와 B를 관계 시키다 (be associated with)
compare A with B : A와 B를 비교하다 (be compared with)
dilute A with B : A를 B로 희석시키다 (be diluted with)
drape A with B : A를 B로 덮다 (be draped with)
equip A with B : A에게 B를 갖추게 하다 (be equipped with)
furnish A with B : A에게 B를 제공하다
include A with B : A를 B에 포함시키다 (be included with)
mix A with B : A와 B를 섞다
present A with B : A에게 B를 제시하다
replace A with B : A를 B로 대체하다 (be replaced with)
supply A with B : A에게 B를 제공하다
clear A of B : A에서 B를 치우다
exchange A for B : A와 B를 교환하다 (A를 주고 B를 받다)
inform (=notify) A of B : A에게 B에 대해서 알리다
remind A of B : A에게 B를 상기시키다
rob A of B : A에게서 B를 빼앗다
warn A of B : A에게 B에 대해서 경고하다
blame A for B : A에게 B에 대해 비난하다
check A for B : B의 여부를 알기 위해 A를 확인하다 cf. check the car for the leak
compensate A for B : A에게 B에 대해 보상하다 (be compensated for)
reimburse A for B : A에게 B에 대해 상환하다 (be reimbursed for)
regard/cite/refer to A as B : A를 B로 여기다 / 언급하다
narrow down A to B : A를 B로 줄이다
attribute A to B : A를 B의 탓으로 돌리다
spend A on B : A를 B에 대해 쓰다
impose A on B : A를 B에 부과하다
divide A into B : A를 B로 나누다 (be divided into)
insert A into B : A를 B로 넣다
add A to B : A를 B에 더하다

*전치사의 활용 예들;
advances in medicine : ~의 진보
change in policy : ~의 변화
interest in medicine : ~에 대한 관심
investment in stock : ~에 대한 투자
a rise/increase in sales (~ 증가)
a fall/decrease/reduction/drop/decline in sales (~의 감소
confidence in his ability : ~에 대한 자신감/신뢰
tax on imported goods : ~에 대한 세금
a monopoly on N : ~에 대한 독점
an impact/effect/influence on environment : ~에 대한 영향
an emphasis on N : ~에 대한 강조
demand for a pay raise : ~에 대한 요구
reason for the failure : ~의 이유
cure for N : N에 대한 치료/해결
respect for his father : ~에 대한 존경
regret for the decision : ~에 대한 후회
concern about(for) employee’s well-being : ~에 대한 관심
access to the facility :~에의 접근
attention to N : ~에 대한 관심


접속사 (conjunction)
; 이미 한 문장 (주어 +동사~) 이 완성된 상태에서, 또 다른 <주어 + 동사 ~> 패턴을 만들고 싶다면. 이 땐 <접속사 + 주어 + 동사 ~ >의 문형이 필요하다. 이런 ‘접속사 이후의 문장을 우리는 통상 “ -절 ” 이라 부른다.

; 세 유형의 절이 있다
<부사절>
I like him BECAUSE HE IS honest.

<명사절-주어>
THAT HE IS honest makes me happy.

<형용사절=관계대명사>
He is the policeman WHO HELPED me find the way to the station.

1.
명사절은 동사의 앞/ 뒤에서 ``주어, 보어, 목적어'' 의 역할을 수행한다;
WHAT HE EMPHASIZED during the meeting is that we should have more
confidence in handling the complaints. ( 주어 < 명사 )
The fact is THAT WE ARE fully ready for the game. ( 보어 < 명사 )
He wonders IF SHE WILL ACCEPT his proposal. ( 목적어 < 명사 )

2. 형용사절은 통상 관계대명사 - 절 이다;
He has three sons WHO HAS LOST their lives in the war altogether.

3. 명사절과 형용사절이 아닌 그 외 나머지 모든 절은 부사절이다;
WHEN HE COMES back, we'll have got the further discussion.
He was so furious THAT NOBODY COULD STOP him.
AS TIME WENT on, he grew bald.
IF IT HAD NOT BEEN for his help, she could have lost her life.
I won't attend the meeting UNLESS THE NEEDS ARE MET.
PROVIDED ( THAT ) SHE LOVES him, it doesn't matter whether he is poor or wealthy.
He hurried to the station LEST HE SHOULD be late for the last train.


등위 접속사 (coordinating conjunction )
; 주로 and/ but/ or 를 말한다
; 이들은, 보통의 접속사들과는 달리, 뒤로 이어지는 문장을 지배하지 못한다 그들 앞에 놓인 품사와 동일한 것만 연결한다
A year has spring, summer, fall and winter. <명사>
She is rough but intelligent.<형용사>
The soldier was dead or dying.

----------------------------------------------
단순 연결형 부사인데,
접속사처럼 보이는 것들
이들은 접속사가 아니다
accordingly also as a result besides consequently furthermore
hence however in fact meanwhile moreover nevertheless nonetheless
on the other hand otherwise still then therefore thus

The patient tested positive to the blood test. As a result, he needed to be further
studied.
The wildfires have scorched the whole village. Nevertheless, the high ranking
officials were vacationing in a tropical country.
-----------------------------------------------------------------


주어 (subject)

; 구조상, 한 문장의 동사 앞에 오는 명사를 말한다.
; 순수 명사 외에 명사의 역할을 할 수 있는 것들로는 명사/ 대명사, 투부정사/ 동명사/ 명사절 이 있다

A COMPUTER is ubiquitous for a modern no.
TOM went to the airport to see his mom off.
SEEING is believing.
TO SMOKE is againt your health.
WHAT CAUSED THE ACCIDENT is beyond explanation.

의미상의 주어 (contextual subject)
; 주어가 이미 한 번 나온 상태에서, 접속사 없이 또 다른 주어를 쓰고 싶다면,
의미상의 주어를 사용해야 한다.
; 이는, 영어의 규칙상, 주어진 문장 안에선 <주어+동사>가 단 한 번만 쓰일 수 있기 때문이다.
; 방법은 '의미상 주어'를 만들고자 하는 보통 명사 또는 대명사의 목적격 앞에 for 나 of 를 놓으면 된다.이 전치사구가 그 바로 뒤에 따라 붙는 to_ 구문의 '의미상 주어'구가 되는 것이다.

It was very courageous OF HER to help the drowning boy out.
It is necessary FOR THE APPLICANTS to submit their bids by tomorrow.
It was very cruel OF THE KING to put his loyal servant to death.

가주어 It(empty subject)
; 가주어는 어떤 특정한 뜻이나 의미를 가지고 있지 않다.
; 그져, 주어의 자리를 지킬 뿐이다. 모든 문장은 주어가 필요하니까.

IT was very cruel of the king to enjoy shooting live animals.
IT took several years for them to complete the project.
IT's not good whining in front of a stranger.
IT seems that he will come here, too.
IT is believed that she married the millionaire.
IT is necessary that he stop smoking.

가주어 There
; 가주어 it 과 달리 그 뒤 동사의 수들이 그 다음 이어지는 명사(진주어)에 의해 결정된다.
THERE ARE usually 40 students in a classroom.
THERE WAS a thief trying to sneak into the house.
THERE once lived a prince, who finally turned out to be a frog..

비인칭 주어 it
; “가주어”와는 다르다.
; 가주어는 뒤에 진주어 문장를 꼭 필요로 하지만, 비인칭 주어는 그렇지 않다.
비인칭 주어는 주로 " 시간, 날씨, 거리, 무게, etc "를 표현할 때 쓰인다

IT is going to rain.
IT was getting darker and colder.
IT snowed very much last night.
What time is IT now?


절 (clause)

명사절
; 동사를 기준으로 앞에 있는 절은 주어절
뒤에 있는 절은 보어절/ 목절어절 이다
; 동사와 앞 뒤로 연관이 있다
What he made address for the public really surprised me.
It is uncertain whether the candidate will be elected the new president.
He is sure of that she will marry him.
They think that the suspect is innocent.

형용사절 = 관계대명사
; 명사와 연관이 있다
The boy who failed the test turned out a son of the professor's.
He took a careful look at the watch which he claims he had lost the other day.

부사절
; 명사절/형용사절을 제외한 모든 절
When it was hot, children ran into the fountain in the park.
He won't attend the party if he is too busy.
They hurried to tha hall lest they should be late.
The village will be deluded unless it stops raining.
The venture company will manage to get through the financial strain provided the
item is approved by the National Standard Committee


진행형
; 어느 동작의 순간 진행을 표현한다
; 사실은 현재분사로 본다
; 이미 동사(be동사) 가 존재하는 상황에서, 다음에 나오는 동사가 ‘능동’의 역할릉 할 땐, 현재분사가 된다.
He IS READING a book.
They were FLYING.

; 종류
1.
현재진행 - am/ are/ is + ~ing ;
They ARE COOKING for the upcoming guests.

2.
현재완료진행 - have/ has been + ~ing ;
We HAVE BEEN SINGING for two hours.

3.
과거진행 - was/ were + ~ing ;
I WAS TAKING a shower when you rang the bell.
4.
과거완료진행 - had been + ~ing ;
It HAD BEEN RAINING when he came across the cave in the deep forest.

5.
미래진행 - will be + ~ing ;
He WILL BE WATCHING the game with his colleagues in the bar.

6.
미래완료진행 - will have been + ~ing
The boy WILL HAVE BEEN SLEEPING in the coma for a week by tomorrow.


품사 (word class/parts of speech)

한 단어가 어느 문장 내에서 담당하는 역할을 말한다.
일반적인 팔품사는;

명사/ 대명사/ 동사/ 형용사/ 부사/ 전치사/ 접속사/ 감탄사

각 품사 참조



형용사 (adjective)

; 명사의 앞 뒤에서 그 의미를 보충 수식한다.
1.
한정적 용법 ; 명사의 앞에 위치한다
한정적으로만 쓰이는 형용사들:
atomic chief drunken economic elder golden legal lighted little
main medical northern principal weekly wooden;

The drunken driver was arrested.
I subscribed for a weekly magazine.

2.
서술적 용법: 명사의 뒤에 위치한다.
서술적으만 쓰이는 형용사들
afraid alight alike alone ashamed asleep awake aware
content glad ill lit ready sorry sure upset well;

She was not aware of the upcoming danger.
The lion was awake while a mouse tiptoed by him.

< CAUTIOUS> ----------------------------------------------------
형용사를 명사로 만들고 싶다면?
그 앞에 To be 또는 Being 을 놓는다;

BEING honest is said to be the best policy.
Pop culture delivers the message that high teens are obsessed with what it is
like TO BE SEXUAL and GLAMOROUS..
---------------------------------------------------------------

; 한정적/ 서술적일 때 그 의미가 달라지는 형용사들
present
The PRESENT curriculum is somewhat different from the old one.
He was not PRESENT today.

late
The LATE president is mocked for his ambiguity.
Don't be LATE again.

; the + 형용사 = 복수명사;
THE RICH ARE not always happy.
There WERE THE WOUNDED and THE DYING on the battlefield.

; 분사형 형용사
많은 형용사들이 과거분사인 경우가 많다
주로 사람의 감정을 표현한다
annoyed bored confused delighted excited exhausted frightened
frustrated interested scared pleased proposed relaxed retired united;

Several banks have shown interest in the PROPOSED development.
I am very INTERESTED in problems caused by pollution.
I was too FRIGHTENED to move.

반면, 현재분사형 형용사는 그 감정의 원인이 된다:
I don't want to hear such ANNOYING tantrum.
It will be a very INTERESTING game.

; 지시 형용사
보통 this 와 that 을 의미한다
this 는 화자와 가까운 대상,
반면 that 은 먼 대상을 가리킨다.

THIS book is not mine.
She deosn't seem to like THAT stupid boy.

these와 those 는 복수형과 함께한다.
THESE girls came here to cheer you up.
THOSE apples look mor delicious.

< IMPORTANT > -------------------------------------------
지시 형용사는 일종의 지정어 (determiner) 로,
보통 명사구의 시작점에 놓인다
a/an the this/ these that/ those my your their some any more many
all both each every;

Some angry protesters started to throw botttles ar the police.
Who blames this innocent lady?
-------------------------------------------------------------
; It is _ that s +(should) _ 절을 이끄는 형용사들
curious good essential important inevitable necessary natural odd proper rational regrettable right, well wonderful wrong, strange surprising

It is natral that children respect their parents.
It was important that the president listen to the voices of the populace.

; 형용사의 배열
1.
형용사를 두 개 이상 나열할 때,
견해 나 인상을 표현하는 주관적 개념이 사실을 표현하는 객관적 사실 앞에 놓인다

Each child was given a BEAUTIFUL RED balloon.
She has married a TALL YOUNG AUSTRALIAN account.
It has SHORT BLACK hair.
an OLD GREEN KITCHEN table
a SMALL ROUND PLASTIC bowl
a NEW GERMAN CAR shampoo
a LONG WHITE SILK scarf

2.
두 개의 명사 중엔 앞의 것이 형용사 역할을 한다;
an exciting DETECTIVE STORY
expensive LEATHER SHOES
an excellent EVENING MEAL

3.
둘 이상을 의미하는 숫자도 그 뒤 명사를 수식할 땐 단수;
a thirteen story building
a twelve year old girl

4.
두 개의 명사가 형용사로 쓰일 때, 재료를 목적 앞에 놓는다;
a NYLON SWIMMING costume
a cheap PLASTIC MEDICINE cupboard
a long STEEL EXHAUST pipe

5.
very 와 함께 쓰이는 형용사가 그렇지 못한 형용사 앞에 온다;
a ( very ) BEAUTIFUL EMBROIDERED dressing gown
a ( very ) FAMOUS MEDICAL school
a ( very ) OLD CARVED picture frame

; 형용사 이지만 부사처럼 보이는 단어들
brotherly cowardly elderly fatherly friendly likely lively lonely lovely manly motherly silly sisterly ugly weekly womanly

The boy needed a motherly kiss from her.
The lovely atmosphere in a ballroom rather surprised the first attendees.


화법 (speech)
화법전환
; 두 화법이 한 문장 안에 함께 할 때,
보통 “직접화법” 을 '간접화법'으로 바꾸는 것을 말한다

; 대개의 문장은 주로 간접화법이고,
quotation mark( 따옴표 )가 있는 문장을 통상 직접화법이라 한다.

; 화법이 바뀔 땐 몇 가지 변화가 일어난다
>동사의 변화
직접화법 내의 내용에 따라 달라지는데,
1.
직화의 내용이 보통문이면;
say → say, say to →tell
She says, " I don't like him."
She SAYS that she doesn't like him.

He said to me, " I don't want to go there."
He TOLD me that he doesn't want to there.

2.
직화의 내용이 명령문이면;
say, say to → tell, ask, command, advise ( 내용에 따라)
The doctor said to him, "Don't smoke too much."
The doctor ADVISED him not to smoke too much.
3.
직화의 내용이 의문문이면;
say, say to → ask
한가지 더, 직화의 의문문에 의문사가 었으면 그걸 그대로 사용하고,
의문사가 없으면 if/ whether 를 사용한다;
He asked me, " When will your mom come ?"
He ASKED me WHERE my mom woul come.

He said to me, " Can you come to the party?"
He ASKED me if I can come to the party.
4.
직화의 내용에 두 개 이상의 문장이 혼자하면
각 문장에 알맞은 동사를 선택하되,
두 문장을 접속사를 통해 연결시킨다.
He said to her, " Where is Buddy. Go fetch him."
He ASKED her WHERE Buddy was and TOLD her TO go fetch him.

>화법전환시 대명사의 변화
직접화법 내의 I 와 you 만 바뀐다.
I 는 간접화법의 주어와,
you 는 간접화법 동사 뒤의 대상과 일치시킨다.
He said to me,"I can participate in the games."
He told me that he could participate in the games.
I said to him,"Can you solve the question?"
I akked him if he could solve the question.

간접 화법( indirect speech ): 유형
1.
간접의문문
; 의문사가 이끄는 절이
다른 절(=주어+동사)과 함께 한 문장를 이루게 될 땐,
“의문사+주어+동사 ”의 어순이 된다
이를 우리는 “간접의문문” 이라 부른다

I don't know WHERE THE BUS STOP IS.
He wonders HOW SHE FEELS.
We don't have any idea of WHY SHE WAS mad about him.
WAHT WE HAVE TO DO is face the project with care.
WHAT do you think IT( the weather ) WILL BE like today?

2.
5형식 문장
직접화법과도 비교하시길
He told the driver to take him to the airport immediately.
< He said to the drive,"Take me to the airport immediately."

The doctor warned the pregnant woman to stop smoking.
< The doctor said to the pregnant woman, " Stop smoking."

3.
4형식 문장
advise ask assure convince inform notify persuade promise remind tell;

The doctor convinced me that my problem was not serious.
He reminded me that the game would be held at 8 o'clock sharp.

4.
의문문
He said to me, " Can you help me tonight?"
He asked me if I could help HIM that night.